This profound chapter begins with the resumption of cosmic activity after the great dissolution (pralaya). The Supreme Being, manifesting as Brahmā, assumes the form of Vāyu and traverses the cosmic waters enveloped in darkness, setting the stage for re-creation. Observing the submerged Earth, he takes on the form of a boar (Varāha), lifts her from the depths, and reorganizes the universe—re-establishing land, oceans, rivers, and mountains, all of which had been dissolved in the fire of dissolution and contracted by cosmic cold and wind.
Brahmā then recreates the seven continents (dvīpas) and their associated sub-regions (varṣas), positioning them in concentric circles surrounded by oceans. He institutes the planetary systems, celestial deities, and the fundamental cosmic elements, including the creation of time itself—lavas, muhūrtas, fortnights, seasons, and Yugas. He further establishes the four Yugas (Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, Kali), each with its own traits and dominant guṇa (sattva, rajas, tamas), marking the rhythm of cosmic evolution.
In the Kṛta Yuga, beings are pure, self-born, free from disease, desire, or sorrow. They live in harmony, sustained by wish-fulfilling trees, and attain siddhi (perfection) purely through mental will. Over time, as Yugas change, this siddhi wanes. In Tretā Yuga, effort replaces spontaneity, and agriculture, settlements, and measurement systems evolve. Desire and greed emerge, leading to the fall of the wish-fulfilling trees, and the pursuit of sustenance through rain, farming, and measured land division begins.
Brahmā responds by creating crops and sacred herbs from the Earth as a cow, yielding seeds for human cultivation. The fourteen primary grains and medicinal herbs are detailed. As society takes form, the division of castes (varṇas) and life stages (āśramas) is formally instituted. The Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas, and Śūdras are assigned roles according to their karma and guṇas, and the four āśramas—Brahmacarya, Gṛhastha, Vānaprastha, and Sannyāsa—are established as progressive paths toward liberation.
The duties and disciplines of each āśrama are elaborated, with emphasis on inner purity (bhāva) as the true determinant of success. Various celestial realms (lokas) are assigned to those who excel in their respective duties. The chapter concludes with the cyclical rebirth of beings from Janaloka into the present creation—gods, sages, humans, and even insects—all shaped by the residual karma and dharma of their previous existence.
सूत उवाच
तुल्यं युगसहस्रस्य नैशं कालमुपास्य सः ।
शर्वर्यन्ते प्रकुरुते ब्रह्मत्वं सर्गकारणात् ॥ १ ॥
sūta uvāca
tulyaṃ yugasahasrasya naiśaṃ kālamupāsya saḥ |
śarvaryante prakurute brahmatvaṃ sargakāraṇāt || 1 ||
Sūta said: Having observed (undergone) the night-time duration equal to a thousand Yugas, at the end of that cosmic night (śarvarī), he (the Supreme Being) assumes the role of Brahmā for the purpose of creation.
ब्रह्मा तु सलिले तस्मिन्वायुर्भूत्वा तदा चरन् ।
अन्धकारे तदा तस्मिन्नष्टे स्थावरजङ्गमे ॥ २ ॥
brahmā tu salile tasminvāyurbhūtvā tadā caran |
andhakāre tadā tasminnaṣṭe sthāvarajaṅgame || 2 ||
Then, Brahmā, having taken the form of Vāyu (wind), moved about in those waters, when all was pervaded by darkness, and both the mobile and immobile beings had been annihilated.
जलेन समनुव्याप्ते सर्वतः पृथिवीतले ।
अविभागेन भूतेषु समन्तात्सुस्थितेषु तु ॥३॥
jalena samanuvyāpte sarvataḥ pṛthivītale |
avibhāgena bhūteṣu samantātsusthiteṣu tu ||3||
When the surface of the earth was completely covered by water from all sides, and all beings existed in a state of undivided equilibrium, perfectly established all around.
This verse reflects a cosmic stillness that follows the dissolution (pralaya):
The entire earth is submerged beneath the waters — a common image in Purāṇic and Vedic cosmology signifying the pre-creation state. All beings (bhūtas) are in a state of undivided unity, meaning individual distinctions (like name, form, or action) have dissolved — symbolic of a return to the primordial unity. The word "susthiteṣu" suggests that these undifferentiated beings are not chaotic, but rather rest in balance — a poised stillness before the next cycle of creation.
This sets the stage for Brahmā’s creative activity, which will soon begin to differentiate these unified elements into the structured universe.
निशायामिव खद्योतः प्रावृट्काले ततस्ततः ।
तदाऽऽकाशे चरन्सोऽथ वीक्ष्यमाणः स्वयंभुवः ॥४॥
niśāyāmiva khadyotaḥ prāvṛṭkāle tatastataḥ |
tadā’’kāśe caranso’tha vīkṣyamāṇaḥ svayaṃbhuvaḥ ||4||
Like a firefly during the night in the rainy season, flickering here and there, so then moved the Self-born (Svayambhū) in the sky, visibly manifest.
प्रतिष्ठाया ह्युपायं तु मार्गमाणस्तदा प्रभुः ।
ततस्तु सलिले तस्मिञ्ज्ञात्वा हान्तर्गतां महीम् ॥५॥
pratiṣṭhāyā hyupāyaṃ tu mārgamāṇastadā prabhuḥ |
tatastu salile tasmiñjñātvā hāntargatāṃ mahīm ||5||
Then the Lord, seeking a means for re-establishing (the cosmos), came to know that the Earth had submerged into the waters.
अनुमानात्तु संबुद्धो भूमेरुद्धरणं प्रति ।
चकारान्यां तनुं चैव पूर्वकल्पादिषु स्मृताम् ॥६॥
anumānāttu saṃbuddho bhūmeruddharaṇaṃ prati |
cakārānyāṃ tanuṃ caiva pūrvakalpādiṣu smṛtām ||6||
Through inference (anumāna), he became aware of the need to raise the Earth, and accordingly assumed another form—one that was remembered from the previous Kalpas.
स तु रूपं वराहस्य कृत्वाऽपः प्राविशत्प्रभुः ।
अद्भिः संछादितामुर्वी समीक्ष्याथ प्रजापतिः ॥७॥
sa tu rūpaṃ varāhasya kṛtvā’paḥ prāviśatprabhuḥ |
adbhiḥ saṃchāditāmurvī samīkṣyātha prajāpatiḥ ||7||
The Supreme Lord, having assumed the form of a boar, entered the waters. Seeing the Earth completely covered by the waters, Prajāpati observed it attentively.
उद्धृत्योर्वीमथाद्भ्यस्तु अपस्तास्तु स विन्यसन् ।
सामुद्रीस्तु समुद्रेषु नादेयीर्निम्नगास्वपि ॥ ८ ॥
uddhṛtyorvīmathādbhyastu apastāstu sa vinyasan |
sāmudrīstu samudreṣu nādeyīrnimnagāsvapi || 8 ||
Having lifted up the Earth from the waters, he (the Lord) then reallocated those waters—placing the oceanic waters into the oceans, and the riverine waters into the rivers.
This action mirrors the concept of dharma—the reestablishment of order from chaos (ṛta vs anṛta).
पार्थिवीस्तु स विन्यस्य पृथिव्यां सोऽचिनोद्गिरीन् ।
प्राक्सर्गे दह्यमाने तु तदा संवर्तकाग्निना ॥ ९॥
pārthivīstu sa vinyasya pṛthivyāṃ so’cinodgirīn |
prāksarge dahyamāne tu tadā saṃvartakāgninā || 9||
He arranged the terrestrial elements (pārthivīḥ) upon the earth, and then he gathered (or formed) the mountains—at a time when the previous creation was being consumed by the fire of cosmic dissolution (saṁvartaka-agni).
This verse describes a moment of cosmic restoration after the great dissolution. The Lord, in Varāha form, not only lifts the earth and distributes its waters, but also reconstitutes the physical matter (pārthivīḥ) of the world, forms the mountains (girīn) anew, following a cosmic destruction (prāk-sarga) by the Saṁvartaka fire, which is a fierce fire that burns the universe at the end of a Kalpa. Thus, the Lord not only preserves but rebuilds the structure of the world, piece by piece, from chaos to cosmic order.
तेनाग्निना प्रलीनास्ते पर्वता भुवि सर्वशः ।
शैत्यादेकार्णवे तस्मिन्वायुनाऽऽपस्तु संहृताः ॥ १० ॥
tenāgninā pralīnāste parvatā bhuvi sarvaśaḥ |
śaityādekārṇave tasminvāyunā’’pastu saṃhṛtāḥ || 10 ||
By that fire (of dissolution), all the mountains on the earth were completely dissolved. Due to intense cold, in that single great ocean, the waters were withdrawn (or contracted) by the wind.
निषक्ता यत्र यत्राऽऽसंस्तत्र तत्राऽचलोऽभवत् ।
स्कन्धाचलत्वादचला: पर्वभिः पर्वताः स्मृताः ||११||
niṣaktā yatra yatrā’’saṃstatra tatrā’calo’bhavat |
skandhācalatvādacalā: parvabhiḥ parvatāḥ smṛtāḥ ||11||
Wherever portions of the earth became fixed (or got lodged), there a mountain came to be. Because they remained motionless and stable (like shoulders or supports), they came to be known as 'Acalas'. Since they consist of joints or ridges (parvas), they are remembered as 'Parvatas' (mountains).
गिरयोऽद्भिर्निगीर्णत्वाच्चयनाच्च शिलोच्चयः ।
ततस्तु तां समुद्धृत्य क्षितिमन्तर्जलात्प्रभुः॥१२॥
स्वस्थाने स्थापयित्वा च विभागमकरोत्पुनः ।
girayo’dbhirnigīrṇatvāccayanācca śiloccayaḥ |
tatastu tāṃ samuddhṛtya kṣitimantarjalātprabhuḥ||12||
svasthāne sthāpayitvā ca vibhāgamakarotpunaḥ |
The mountains are called giris because they were once submerged by water (adbhiḥ nigīrṇatvāt), and śilocchaya (heaps of rocks) because they are formed by accumulation (chayana). Then, the Supreme Being, having lifted up the Earth from the waters, re-established her in her proper place and again made her divisions.
सप्त सप्त तु वर्षाणि तस्या द्वीपेषु सप्तसु ॥ १३॥
विषमाणि समीकृत्य शिलाभिरचिनोद्गिरीन् ।
द्वीपेषु तेषु वर्षाणि चत्वारिंशस्तथैव च ॥ १४ ॥
sapta sapta tu varṣāṇi tasyā dvīpeṣu saptasu || 13||
viṣamāṇi samīkṛtya śilābhiracinodgirīn |
dvīpeṣu teṣu varṣāṇi catvāriṃśastathaiva ca || 14 ||
There were seven varṣas (regions or sub-continents) in each of the seven dvīpas (islands or continents). Leveling the uneven lands, he constructed mountains with stone masses. In those continents, the total number of varṣas came to forty in the same manner.
The seven dvīpas (Jambu, Plakṣa, Śālmalī, Kuśa, Krauñca, Śāka, Puṣkara) are each subdivided into seven varṣas, making 49, but only 40 are specifically mentioned here.
तावन्तः पर्वताचैव वर्षान्ते समवस्थिताः ।
सर्गादौ संनिविष्टास्ते स्वभावेनैव नान्यथा ।। १५ ।।
tāvantaḥ parvatācaiva varṣānte samavasthitāḥ |
sargādau saṃniviṣṭāste svabhāvenaiva nānyathā || 15 ||
An equal number of mountains were situated at the ends of the varṣas (regions). They were positioned at the beginning of creation itself, by their very nature and not by any other means.
सप्त द्वीपा : समुद्राश्च अन्योन्यस्य तु मण्डलम् ।
सन्निकृष्टाः स्वभावेन समावृत्य परस्परम्॥१६॥
sapta dvīpā : samudrāśca anyonyasya tu maṇḍalam |
sannikṛṣṭāḥ svabhāvena samāvṛtya parasparam||16||
The seven continents (dvīpas) and the seven oceans (samudras) form circular regions around one another. Close by their very nature, they mutually encompass each other.
The verse describes the cosmological geography from the Purāṇic worldview. Seven dvīpas (continents) are arranged in concentric circles. Seven oceans surround them alternately, forming a nested structure. This arrangement is not artificial but is said to occur “svabhāvena”, meaning by natural cosmic order, and reflects the idea of the circular or mandala-based universe seen in Hindu cosmology, with Jambu-dvīpa at the center.
भूराख्यांश्चतुरो लोकांश्चन्द्रादित्यौ ग्रहैः सह ।
पूर्वं तु निर्ममे ब्रह्मा स्थानानीमानि सर्वशः || १७ ||
bhūrākhyāṃścaturo lokāṃścandrādityau grahaiḥ saha |
pūrvaṃ tu nirmame brahmā sthānānīmāni sarvaśaḥ || 17 ||
Brahmā formerly created the four worlds, beginning with Bhū (the Earth-loka), along with the Moon, the Sun, and the planets — all these realms and celestial positions were fully established.
The “four worlds” beginning with Bhū likely refer to: Bhū-loka (Earth), Bhuvar-loka (atmosphere), Svar-loka (heaven), Maharloka or Naka-loka — depending on Purāṇic enumeration. This verse confirms that the celestial architecture of: the Moon (Candra), the Sun (Āditya) and the Navagrahas (planets) were deliberately placed by Brahmā during the early stage of the Kalpa. The word “sthānāni” implies not just creation but proper placement — assigning each luminary its specific cosmic orbit and function.
कल्पस्य चास्य ब्रह्मा वै ह्यसृजत्स्थानिन: पुरा ।
आपोऽग्निः पृथिवी वायुरन्तरिक्षं दिवं तथा ॥ १८ ॥
kalpasya cāsya brahmā vai hyasṛjatsthānina: purā |
āpo’gniḥ pṛthivī vāyurantarikṣaṃ divaṃ tathā || 18 ||
And in this Kalpa, Brahmā indeed created, in ancient times, the presiding deities (sthāninas) of the elements: Water, Fire, Earth, Air, the Atmosphere (Antarikṣa), and the Heaven (Div).
The "sthāninaḥ" (स्थानीयाः or स्थानिनः) are elemental or cosmic deities who preside over specific realms or elements.
They can be viewed both metaphysically as forces or tattvas (cosmic principles), or theologically as deities assigned to specific domains
This verse establishes a six-fold elemental/cosmic framework, closely related to Vedic cosmology, similar to:
Āpaḥ – Water (fluidity, cohesion) Agniḥ – Fire (transformation, energy) Pṛthivī – Earth (solidity, support) Vāyuḥ – Air (movement, breath) Antarikṣam – Atmosphere (space between Earth and heaven) Div – Heaven or the celestial region (luminous sphere)
स्वर्गं दिशः समुद्रांश्च नदीः सर्वांश्च पर्वतान्।
ओषधीनां तथाऽऽत्मानमात्मानं वृक्षवीरुधाम् ॥१९॥
svargaṃ diśaḥ samudrāṃśca nadīḥ sarvāṃśca parvatān|
oṣadhīnāṃ tathā’’tmānamātmānaṃ vṛkṣavīrudhām ||19||
He (Brahmā) also created: the heaven (svargam), the quarters (diśaḥ), the oceans (samudrān), the rivers (nadīḥ), all the mountains (parvatān), as well as the inner essence (ātmānam) of medicinal herbs (oṣadhīnāṁ), and the spirit (ātmānam) of trees and creepers (vṛkṣa-vīrudhām).
The term ātmānam appears twice — first referring to herbs, and second to trees and creepers — emphasizing that each life-form or category has its own innate consciousness or vital principle (ātman).
Brahmā’s creation as both structural and spiritual: not just physical locations (e.g., mountains, oceans) but also endows plants with inner essence (ātman). Trees and creepers (vṛkṣa-vīrudhām) are explicitly given soul-like essence
लवा: का(वान्का)ष्ठाः कलाश्चैव मुहूर्तं संधिरात्र्यहम् ।
अर्धमासांश्च मासांश्च अयनाब्दयुगानि च ॥ २० ॥
lavā: kā(vānkā)ṣṭhāḥ kalāścaiva muhūrtaṃ saṃdhirātryaham |
ardhamāsāṃśca māsāṃśca ayanābdayugāni ca || 20 ||
He (Brahmā) also created the finer divisions of time:
Lavas, Kāṣṭhās, Kalās, Muhūrtas, the Sandhi (junction of night and day), night and day, fortnights, months, solstices (Ayanas), years (Abdas), and the Yugas (aeons).
lavāḥ — smallest unit of time (approx. 1/7775 sec) kāṣṭhāḥ — next higher unit of time (approx. 18 Lavas) kalāḥ — about 30 Kāṣṭhās; muhūrtaṁ — a traditional 48-minute unit (30 per day) sandhi — juncture (between day/night — sunrise/sunset) rātri — night aham (ahaḥ) — day ardhamāsāḥ — fortnights (waxing/waning halves of a lunar month) māsāḥ — months ayana — solstices or half-year cycles (Dakṣiṇa and Uttarāyaṇa) abdaḥ — solar year yugāni — Yugas
स्थानाभिमानिनश्चैव स्थानानि च पृथक् पृथक् ।
स्थानात्मनः स सृष्ट्वा वै युगावस्थां विनिर्ममे ||२१||
sthānābhimāninaścaiva sthānāni ca pṛthak pṛthak |
sthānātmanaḥ sa sṛṣṭvā vai yugāvasthāṃ vinirmame ||21||
He (Brahmā) created, separately, the abodes (sthānāni) and their respective presiding deities or spiritual occupants (sthānābhimāninaḥ). Having created the essential soul or nature (sthānātmanaḥ) of each realm, he then established the sequence and order of the Yugas (ages).
This verse reflects the cosmic structuring done by Brahmā in the early creation phase:
First, he creates the lokas (abodes/realms of existence). Then, he assigns guardians or presiding deities to each realm — these may include deities like Indra (for Svarga), Agni (for fire), Varuṇa (for oceans), etc. He also creates the spiritual essence or dharma of each realm — implying not just physical place, but also the purpose and consciousness behind each realm. Finally, he sets in motion the temporal structure: the four Yugas that cycle through cosmic time.
कृतं त्रेता द्वापरं च कलिं चैव तथा युगम्।
कल्पस्याऽऽदौ कृतयुगे प्रथमे सोऽसृजत्प्रजाः ॥२२॥
kṛtaṃ tretā dvāparaṃ ca kaliṃ caiva tathā yugam|
kalpasyā’’dau kṛtayuge prathame so’sṛjatprajāḥ ||22||
The Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali are the four Yugas (epochs of time). At the beginning of this Kalpa, during the first Kṛta Yuga, he (Brahmā) created living beings (progeny).
प्रागुक्ता या मया तुभ्यं पूर्वकालं प्रजास्तु ताः ।
तस्मिन्संवर्तमाने तु कल्पे दग्धस्तदाऽग्निना ॥ २३ ॥
prāguktā yā mayā tubhyaṃ pūrvakālaṃ prajāstu tāḥ |
tasminsaṃvartamāne tu kalpe dagdhastadā’gninā || 23 ||
Those progenies of earlier times, which I had mentioned to you before — when that Kalpa came to its end (saṁvarta), they were burned up by the fire at that time.
अप्राप्तायास्तपोलोकं जनलोकं समाश्रिताः ।
प्रवर्तन्ति (ते) पुनः सर्गे बीजार्थं ता भवन्ति हि ॥ २४ ॥
aprāptāyāstapolokaṃ janalokaṃ samāśritāḥ |
pravartanti (te) punaḥ sarge bījārthaṃ tā bhavanti hi || 24 ||
Those who did not attain the world of Tapoloka (the world of austerity) resorted to Janaloka (the world of creative sages). They re-enter creation and take form again for the purpose of continuing the seed of creation (i.e., reproduction or re-manifestation).
Those who fail to ascend to the Tapoloka due to lack of qualification or austerity instead settle in Janaloka, a subtler spiritual plane still beyond the material world.
When the next creation begins, they return into the manifest world — not randomly, but purposefully to sustain the cosmic cycle by becoming seeds (bīja) for new beings and the evolutionary process.
बीजार्थेन स्थितास्तत्र पुन: सर्गस्य 'कारणात्।
ततस्ताः सृज्यमानास्तु संतानार्थं भवन्ति हि ॥ २५ ॥
bījārthena sthitāstatra puna: sargasya 'kāraṇāt|
tatastāḥ sṛjyamānāstu saṃtānārthaṃ bhavanti hi || 25 ||
Stationed there (in Janaloka) for the purpose of the seed (of life), and because of the need for renewed creation, those beings, when re-created, come into existence once again for the purpose of progeny (continuation of the lineage).
The souls in Janaloka, after surviving dissolution (pralaya), are stationed as "seeds" (bīja) awaiting the next Sarga (creation).
धर्मार्थकाममोक्षाणामिह ताः साध (धि) का: स्मृता: ।
देवाश्च पितरश्चैव ऋषयो मनवस्तथा ॥ २६ ॥
dharmārthakāmamokṣāṇāmiha tāḥ sādha (dhi) kā: smṛtā: |
devāśca pitaraścaiva ṛṣayo manavastathā || 26 ||
Here, those (beings) are regarded as the accomplishers of Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), Kāma (desire), and Mokṣa (liberation)—namely, the Gods (Devas), the Manes (Pitṛs), the Sages (Ṛṣis), and also the Manus.
ततस्ते तपसा युक्ताः स्थानान्यापूरयन्ति हि ।
ब्रह्मणो मानसास्ते वै सिद्धात्मानो भवन्ति हि ॥ २७॥
tataste tapasā yuktāḥ sthānānyāpūrayanti hi |
brahmaṇo mānasāste vai siddhātmāno bhavanti hi || 27||
Then, endowed with austerity (tapas), they fill the respective abodes (of creation). These, indeed, are the mind-born (mānasāḥ) sons of Brahmā, who become perfected souls (siddhātmānaḥ).
These beings are said to occupy the cosmological "stations"—such as positions in the worlds, roles as sages, protectors, progenitors, etc. They do so through the power of austerity (tapas), highlighting the Vedic idea that penance or spiritual discipline is creative, sustaining, and sanctifying. As a result, they are not just creators, but siddhātmānaḥ—those who are spiritually perfected and pure in nature.
ये सङ्गाद्वेषयुक्तेन कर्मणा ते दिवं गताः ।
आवर्तमाना इह ते संभवन्ति युगे युगे ॥ २८ ॥
ye saṅgādveṣayuktena karmaṇā te divaṃ gatāḥ |
āvartamānā iha te saṃbhavanti yuge yuge || 28 ||
Those who attained heaven by actions driven by attachment (saṅga) and aversion (dveṣa), they revolve in the cycle (of rebirth) and are reborn here in every Yuga (age).
Attaining heaven is not liberation if it is gained through actions tainted by attachment and hatred. Such souls, even after enjoying celestial rewards, are not free from the cycle of rebirth. They revolve through saṁsāra and are reborn in each Yuga.
The verse echoes Bhagavad Gītā 9.21: "te taṁ bhuktvā svarga-lokaṁ viśālaṁ kṣīṇe puṇye martya-lokaṁ viśanti..." — Those who reach heaven through merit return once their merit is exhausted.
Even celestial ascension does not guarantee liberation if driven by self-centered or reactive karma. Such beings repeatedly return to worldly birth in each Yuga, caught in the cycle of saṁsāra.
स्वकर्मफलशेषेण ख्याताचैव तथात्मिकाः ।
संभवन्ति जनाल्लोकात्कर्मसंशयबन्धनात् ॥ २९ ॥
svakarmaphalaśeṣeṇa khyātācaiva tathātmikāḥ |
saṃbhavanti janāllokātkarmasaṃśayabandhanāt || 29 ||
Through the residual results of their own actions (svakarma-phala-śeṣa), they, who are known and of such a nature (tathātmikāḥ), take birth from Janaloka, due to the bondage caused by uncertainty or entanglement in karma (karma-saṁśaya-bandhana).
"svakarma-phala-śeṣeṇa" points to residual karma — not yet exhausted fruits that still bind the soul. "khyātāś ca tathātmikāḥ" suggests these souls retain an identity or characteristic formed by their prior actions. "karma-saṁśaya-bandhanāt" is a profound phrase. It refers to being bound not just by actions, but by the uncertain or unresolved effects of karma — what we might call karmic entanglement. Though they dwell in Janaloka (a higher world), they are not fully liberated and must descend again to take birth on Earth.
Even elevated beings (residing in Janaloka) can be drawn back to mortal birth if residual karma and karmic ambiguity remain. The final liberation (mokṣa) requires not just merit, but complete resolution of all karmic bonds — intentional or ambiguous.
आशयः कारणं तत्र बोद्धव्यं कर्मणां तु सः ।
तैः कर्मभिस्तु जायन्ते जनाल्लोकाः शुभाशुभैः ॥ ३० ॥
āśayaḥ kāraṇaṃ tatra boddhavyaṃ karmaṇāṃ tu saḥ |
taiḥ karmabhistu jāyante janāllokāḥ śubhāśubhaiḥ || 30 ||
The inner disposition (āśaya) must be understood as the root cause of actions; by these actions, whether good or bad, beings are born from Janaloka.
Āśaya is a critical term in Indian metaphysics. It refers to the deep-seated intention, will, or impression that underlies all karmic activity. It is more subtle than thought or desire — it is the seed of karma.
The verse says: It is not merely karma (action) but the motivation or mental impression (āśaya) behind karma that is the true cause.
The Janaloka, a subtle world often inhabited by beings awaiting rebirth or in deep meditation, acts as a kind of karmic reservoir. Beings return from there to take rebirth in the material world, driven by their āśaya and accumulated karma — both good and bad.
This verse links cosmic rebirth to psychological causality: karma isn't mechanical — the quality and intention behind it determine its fruition. Even high beings in Janaloka can fall back into saṁsāra if their āśaya has unresolved traces.
गृह्णन्ति ते शरीराणि नानारूपाणि योनिषु ।
देवाद्यस्थावरान्ते च उत्पद्यन्ते परस्परम् ॥ ३१॥
gṛhṇanti te śarīrāṇi nānārūpāṇi yoniṣu |
devādyasthāvarānte ca utpadyante parasparam || 31||
They take on bodies of various forms across different wombs (births), and are born mutually in a range from gods (devas) down to immobile beings (plants, etc.).
Rebirth is governed by past karma and āśaya (mental impressions). Souls are said to migrate across species and forms: from divine (deva) to animal, human, plant, or even inanimate forms, depending on karmic residue. "Parasparam" implies cyclic or mutual interchange — even those who were once gods may fall into lower births and vice versa. Rebirth is not linear, but dynamic and reciprocal — a reflection of one's deeds and intentions over time.
तेषां ये यानि कर्माणि प्राक्सृष्टेः प्रतिपेदिरे ।
तान्येव प्रतिपद्यन्ते सृज्यमानाः पुनः पुनः ॥ ३२ ॥
teṣāṃ ye yāni karmāṇi prāksṛṣṭeḥ pratipedire |
tānyeva pratipadyante sṛjyamānāḥ punaḥ punaḥ || 32 ||
Whatever actions they had undertaken prior to the creation, those very same actions they re-assume when being recreated again and again.
The karma from prior Kalpas (cosmic cycles) remains latent in the soul. When the world is re-created, the same beings resume the same karmic patterns unless liberated. The idea is similar to the concept of "saṁskāra" (mental impressions) and vasanas (subtle desires) which shape rebirths.
हिंस्राहिंस्रे मृदुक्रूरे धर्माधर्मे ऋतानृते ।
तद्भाविताः प्रपद्यन्ते तस्मात्तत्तस्य रोचते ॥ ३३ ॥
hiṃsrāhiṃsre mṛdukrūre dharmādharme ṛtānṛte |
tadbhāvitāḥ prapadyante tasmāttattasya rocate || 33 ||
Into the violent or non-violent, the gentle or the cruel, the righteous or the unrighteous, the true or the false — those (beings), shaped by those dispositions, take birth accordingly; that alone appeals to each one (according to their nature).
Beings gravitate toward forms and modes of existence that reflect their inherent tendencies (vāsanās). Their rebirth into violent or peaceful, gentle or harsh, truthful or deceptive lives is not random, but due to conditioning from past karma. Hence, they are drawn to what suits their disposition, and that very nature feels "right" or appealing to them, perpetuating the cycle. This is a key philosophical point — moral alignment is not merely imposed externally but emerges from inner karmic makeup and inclinations.
कल्पेष्वासन्व्यतीतेषु रूपनामानि यानि च ।
तान्येवानागते काले प्रायशः प्रतिपेदिरे ॥ ३४॥
kalpeṣvāsanvyatīteṣu rūpanāmāni yāni ca |
tānyevānāgate kāle prāyaśaḥ pratipedire || 34 ||
The forms and names that existed in the Kalpas that have passed, those very same are generally assumed again in the future (Kalpas).
तस्मात्तु नामरूपाणि तान्येव प्रतिपेदिरे ।
पुनः पुनस्ते कल्पेषु जायन्ते नामरूपतः ॥ ३५ ॥
tasmāttu nāmarūpāṇi tānyeva pratipedire |
punaḥ punaste kalpeṣu jāyante nāmarūpataḥ || 35 ||
Therefore, those very names and forms are once again assumed; time and again, during the Kalpas, beings are born in accordance with names and forms.
Name and form (nāma-rūpa) is a key metaphysical concept in Indian philosophy, especially in Vedānta — representing the dual aspect of individuality: Nāma (name) – the identifier or essence; Rūpa (form) – the external appearance or body
The cosmic process is repetitive — names and forms recur identically across cosmic cycles (Kalpas). Beings are reborn not arbitrarily, but in patterns corresponding to prior archetypes or karmic imprints. The world is not absolutely novel in each Kalpa, but patterned by previous existences. Thus, nāma-rūpa is the underlying structure of phenomenal reality, and creation is essentially a re-manifestation of what already was.
ततः सर्गे ह्यवष्टब्धे सिसृक्षोर्ब्रह्मणस्तु वै ।
प्रजास्ता ध्यायतस्तस्य सत्याभिध्यायिनस्तदा ॥ ३६ ॥
tataḥ sarge hyavaṣṭabdhe sisṛkṣorbrahmaṇastu vai |
prajāstā dhyāyatastasya satyābhidhyāyinastadā || 36 ||
Then, when the creation was suspended, and Brahmā was intent on creation, those beings (progeny) manifested from his deep contemplation focused upon truth.
The act of creation has been temporarily stalled (avaṣṭabdhe). Brahmā, the creator, is absorbed in deep meditation, not just on creation as an act, but specifically on “Satya” – Truth or Reality. From this focused contemplation, beings (prajās) are born — not through external activity, but through inner realization or pure mental intent (manasic sṛṣṭi). The verse aligns with the Purāṇic and Upanishadic view that initial creation is mental, not physical. This highlights the power of meditative intent and the primacy of Satya (truth/reality) as the cause or seed of manifest beings.
मिथुनानां सहस्रं तु सोऽसृजद्वै मुखात्तदा ।
जनास्ते ह्युपपद्यन्ते सत्त्वोद्रिक्ताः सुचेतसः ||३७||
mithunānāṃ sahasraṃ tu so’sṛjadvai mukhāttadā |
janāste hyupapadyante sattvodriktāḥ sucetasaḥ ||37||
Then, from his mouth, he indeed created a thousand couples. These beings are born with a predominance of Sattva (purity), and are endowed with noble intellect (su-cetasaḥ).
सहस्रमन्यद्वक्षस्तो मिथुनानां ससर्ज ह।
सर्वे रजसोद्रिक्ताः शुष्मिणश्चाप्यशुष्मिणः ॥ ३८ ॥
सृष्ट्वा सहस्रमन्यत्तु द्वन्द्वानामुरुतः पुनः ।
रजस्तमोभ्यामुद्रिक्ता ईहाशीलास्तु ते स्मृताः ।। ३९ ।।
sahasramanyadvakṣasto mithunānāṃ sasarja ha|
sarve rajasodriktāḥ śuṣmiṇaścāpyaśuṣmiṇaḥ || 38 ||
sṛṣṭvā sahasramanyattu dvandvānāmurutaḥ punaḥ |
rajastamobhyāmudriktā īhāśīlāstu te smṛtāḥ || 39 ||
Then, from his chest, he created another thousand pairs of beings (mithunas). All of them were dominated by Rajas, some possessing great vital energy (śuṣma), others lacking it.
Again, from his thighs, he created another thousand pairs. These were dominated by both Rajas and Tamas, and are said to be of restless and desire-driven nature (īhā-śīlaḥ).
पद्भ्यां सहस्रमन्यत्तु मिथुनानां ससर्ज ह।
उद्रिक्तास्तमसा सर्वे निः श्रीका ह्यल्पतेजसः ॥ ४० ॥
padbhyāṃ sahasramanyattu mithunānāṃ sasarja ha|
udriktāstamasā sarve niḥ śrīkā hyalpatejasaḥ || 40 ||
Then, from his feet, he created another thousand pairs (mithunas). All of them were overwhelmed by Tamas, lacking in prosperity and possessing little brilliance.
ततो वै हर्षमाणास्ते द्वन्द्वोत्पन्नास्तु प्राणिनः ।
अन्योन्या हृच्छयाविष्टा मैथुनायोपचक्रमुः ॥४१॥
tato vai harṣamāṇāste dvandvotpannāstu prāṇinaḥ |
anyonyā hṛcchayāviṣṭā maithunāyopacakramuḥ ||41||
Then, indeed, those beings who were born as pairs (couples) rejoiced. Overwhelmed by mutual desire of the heart, they approached each other for union (copulation).
The copulation impulse (maithuna) arises from mutual attraction (hṛcchayā) among beings created in **paired form (dvandva)*. This passage highlights the natural evolution of creation where sentient beings transition from divinely created forms to self-propagating reproduction driven by emotion and instinct. This also mirrors many early cosmological texts where desire (kāma) is said to be the first seed of creation — a common Vedic motif.
ततः प्रभृति कल्पेऽस्मिन्मिथुनोत्पत्तिरुच्यते ।
मासे (सि) मासे (स्या) र्तवं यद्यत्तत्तदासीद्धि योषिताम् ॥ ४२ ॥
tataḥ prabhṛti kalpe’sminmithunotpattirucyate |
māse (si) māse (syā) rtavaṃ yadyattattadāsīddhi yoṣitām || 42 ||
Since that time in this Kalpa, the origin of procreation through coupling (mithuna) has been declared. In every month, the fertile period (ṛtavaḥ) of women occurred accordingly.
तस्मात्तदा न सुषुवुः सेवितैरपि मैथुनै: ।
आयुषोऽन्ते प्रसूयन्ते मिथुनान्येव ते सकृत् ॥ ४३ ॥
tasmāttadā na suṣuvuḥ sevitairapi maithunai: |
āyuṣo’nte prasūyante mithunānyeva te sakṛt || 43 ||
Therefore, in those times, they did not give birth despite engaging in sexual union. Only at the end of their lifespan did they give birth to a single pair of offspring.
Early progenitors or beings in this Kalpa did not reproduce continuously, even with sexual activity. Instead, reproduction occurred only once, at the very end of their lifespan, and resulted in a single pair (mithuna) of offspring.
कुटका: कुविकाश्चैव उत्पद्यन्ते मुमूर्षिताः ।
ततः प्रभृति कल्पेऽस्मिन्मिथुनानां हि संभवः ॥ ४४ ॥
kuṭakā: kuvikāścaiva utpadyante mumūrṣitāḥ |
tataḥ prabhṛti kalpe’sminmithunānāṃ hi saṃbhavaḥ || 44 ||
Deformed and malformed (crooked) offspring were born from those who were desirous of death. From that time onward in this Kalpa, the generation of beings through pairs (sexual reproduction) became established.
ध्याते तु मनसा तासां प्रजानां जायते सकृत् ।
शब्दादिविषयः शुद्धः प्रत्येकं पञ्चलक्षणः ॥ ४५ ॥
dhyāte tu manasā tāsāṃ prajānāṃ jāyate sakṛt |
śabdādiviṣayaḥ śuddhaḥ pratyekaṃ pañcalakṣaṇaḥ || 45 ||
When those progenies were meditated upon with the mind, they were born instantly, each characterized by pure perception of the fivefold objects — sound, touch, form, taste, and smell.
इत्येव मानसी पूर्वं प्राक्सृष्टिर्या प्रजापतेः ।
तस्यान्ववाये संभूता यैरिदं पूरितं जगत् ॥ ४६ ॥
ityeva mānasī pūrvaṃ prāksṛṣṭiryā prajāpateḥ |
tasyānvavāye saṃbhūtā yairidaṃ pūritaṃ jagat || 46 ||
Thus indeed was the earlier mind-born creation of Prajāpati. From that lineage were born those by whom this universe came to be filled.
सरित्सरः समुद्रांश्च सेवन्ते पर्वतानपि ।
तदा नात्यम्बुशीतोष्णा युगे तस्मिंश्चरन्ति वै ॥ ४७॥
saritsaraḥ samudrāṃśca sevante parvatānapi |
tadā nātyambuśītoṣṇā yuge tasmiṃścaranti vai || 47||
The rivers, lakes, and oceans serve (nourish) even the mountains. During that age, beings move about when neither water nor air is excessively cold or hot.
पृथ्वीरसोद्भवं नाम आहारं ह्याहरन्ति वै ।
ताः प्रजाः कामचारिण्यो मानसीं सिद्धिमास्थिताः ॥
pṛthvīrasodbhavaṃ nāma āhāraṃ hyāharanti vai |
tāḥ prajāḥ kāmacāriṇyo mānasīṃ siddhimāsthitāḥ || 48 ||
They (the primordial beings) used to consume food that originated from the sap or essence of the earth. These progenies, indulging in sensual pleasures, had attained mental or psychic fulfillment.
This describes a stage in the early creation, likely during the Kṛta Yuga, where beings did not eat physical food as we do now. Instead, they consumed the rasa (essence or sap) that emerged naturally from the earth — a subtle, nourishing substance not requiring agriculture or killing. These beings are described as kāma-cāriṇyaḥ — acting according to desire, freely moving, likely indicating a time of innocence or unregulated pleasure. Despite their indulgence, they had mānasī siddhi — mental powers or fulfillments, suggesting that their existence was spiritually attuned, even while indulging in sensual experiences. This reflects a paradisiacal era where sustenance and satisfaction were attained without suffering or toil.
धर्माधर्मौ न तास्वास्तां निर्विशेषाः प्रजास्तु ताः ।
तुल्यमायुः सुखं रूपं तासां तस्मिन्कृते युगे ॥४९ ॥
dharmādharmau na tāsvāstāṃ nirviśeṣāḥ prajāstu tāḥ |
tulyamāyuḥ sukhaṃ rūpaṃ tāsāṃ tasminkṛte yuge ||49||
In them (the primordial beings), there was neither righteousness (dharma) nor unrighteousness (adharma); those beings were undifferentiated. In that Kṛta Yuga, they all had equal lifespan, equal happiness, and equal beauty.
This verse describes the ideal state of existence during the Kṛta Yuga (also called Satya Yuga), the golden age in Hindu cosmology. The absence of dharma and adharma doesn't imply lawlessness or amorality; rather, it suggests that the beings were so pure and innately righteous that no distinction between virtue and sin was needed. The term nirviśeṣāḥ underscores equality — there were no caste, class, gender, or spiritual distinctions among beings. All beings enjoyed equal lifespan (they lived full, complete lives), equal happiness (no suffering or sorrow), equal form or beauty (no one was more or less attractive or fortunate). This idealism reflects a harmonious and non-dual state of cosmic balance.
धर्माधर्मौ न तास्वास्तां कल्पादौ तु कृते युगे ।
स्वेन स्वेनाधिकारेम जज्ञिरे ते कृते युगे ॥ ५० ॥
dharmādharmau na tāsvāstāṃ kalpādau tu kṛte yuge |
svena svenādhikārema jajñire te kṛte yuge || 50 ||
At the beginning of the Kalpa, in the Kṛta Yuga, there was neither righteousness nor unrighteousness among them. Each one was born in the Kṛta Yuga according to their own innate role (or rightful capacity).
Dharma and adharma (virtue and vice) were absent not due to ignorance or neutrality, but because beings were naturally aligned with cosmic order — no moral duality was necessary.
The phrase "svena svena adhikāreṇa" suggests that beings manifested in perfect harmony with their innate nature, function, or svadharma, and each soul assumed its rightful position, without struggle or ambition, based on divine order, not imposed hierarchy.
This reflects a non-dual, automatically harmonious existence where purpose and identity are fully integrated from birth.
चत्वारि तु सहस्राणि वर्षाणां दिव्यसंख्यया ।।
आद्यं कृतयुगं प्राहुः संध्यानांतु चतुः शतम् ॥ ५१ ॥
catvāri tu sahasrāṇi varṣāṇāṃ divyasaṃkhyayā ||
ādyaṃ kṛtayugaṃ prāhuḥ saṃdhyānāṃtu catuḥ śatam || 51 ||
Four thousand years of divine measure are said to be the duration of the first, Kṛta Yuga. And four hundred (divine years) are assigned to its dawn and dusk periods (the Sandhyās).
The Kṛta Yuga, the first of the four Yugas, is said to last 4000 divine years in its main phase. With 400 divine years added: 200 at the beginning (Sandhyā, dawn) and 200 at the end (Sandhyāṁśa, dusk). So, total duration of Kṛta Yuga = 4000 + 400 = 4400 divine years. When converted into human years, since one divine year equals 360 human years: 4400×360=1,584,0004400 \times 360 = 1,584,0004400×360=1,584,000 human years. This division shows how the Yuga Cycle is framed around sacred cosmic proportions, emphasizing the gradual transitions between Yugas (not sudden shifts).
ततः सहस्रशस्तासु प्रजासु प्रथितास्वपि ।
न तासां प्रतिघातोऽस्ति न द्वन्द्वं नापि च क्रमः ॥५२॥
tataḥ sahasraśastāsu prajāsu prathitāsvapi |
na tāsāṃ pratighāto’sti na dvandvaṃ nāpi ca kramaḥ ||52||
Then, even though those progenies were manifold, spreading into thousands, there was neither conflict among them, nor dualities, nor even progression (hierarchy or succession).
This verse reflects the purity and harmony of the earliest age (Kṛta Yuga). Even when progenies were numerous and widespread, they lived without conflict or resistance (pratighātaḥ), dualities (such as pain-pleasure, love-hate, etc.), or even structured progression or societal order (kramaḥ), suggesting a natural egalitarian harmony.
पर्वतोदधिसेविन्यो हानिकेताश्रयस्तु ताः ।
विशोकाः सत्त्वबहुला एकान्तसुखितप्रजाः ॥ ५३ ॥
parvatodadhisevinyo hāniketāśrayastu tāḥ |
viśokāḥ sattvabahulā ekāntasukhitaprajāḥ || 53 ||
Those progenies lived delightfully near the mountains and oceans, without relying on permanent dwellings. They were free from sorrow, abundant in sattva (purity and harmony), and lived in absolute, solitary bliss.
ता वै निकामचारिण्यो नित्यं मुदितमानसाः ।
पशवः पक्षिणश्चैव न तदाऽऽसन्सरीसृपाः ॥ ५४ ॥
tā vai nikāmacāriṇyo nityaṃ muditamānasāḥ |
paśavaḥ pakṣiṇaścaiva na tadā’’sansarīsṛpāḥ || 54 ||
Those beings, moving entirely at will, were always joyful in mind. There were animals and birds, but at that time, there were no reptiles or crawling creatures.
नोद्भिज्जा नारकाचैव ते धर्मप्रसूतयः ।
न मूलफलपुष्पं च नाऽऽर्तवमृतवो न च ॥५५॥
nodbhijjā nārakācaiva te dharmaprasūtayaḥ |
na mūlaphalapuṣpaṃ ca nā’’rtavamṛtavo na ca ||55||
There were no germinating plants (udbhijja), nor beings born from hellish realms (nāraka), for all were born of dharma. There were neither roots, fruits, nor flowers, nor any seasonal crops or harvests.
सर्वकामसुखः कालो नात्यर्थं ह्युष्णशीतता ।
मनोभिलषिता: कामास्तासां सर्वत्र सर्वदा ॥ ५६ ॥
उत्तिष्ठन्ति पृथिव्यां वै ताभिर्ध्याता रसोत्थिताः ।
बलवर्णक तासां सिद्धिः सा रोगनाशिनी ॥ ५७ ॥
sarvakāmasukhaḥ kālo nātyarthaṃ hyuṣṇaśītatā |
manobhilaṣitā: kāmāstāsāṃ sarvatra sarvadā || 56 ||
uttiṣṭhanti pṛthivyāṃ vai tābhirdhyātā rasotthitāḥ |
balavarṇaka tāsāṃ siddhiḥ sā roganāśinī || 57 ||
Time itself brought the joy of all desires. There was no extreme heat or cold. The desires cherished in their minds would manifest everywhere, at all times.
Those desires would rise from the earth, generated through their contemplation, nourished by rasa (essence). Their fulfilment gave them strength and beauty, and it was free from disease.
Desires arose directly from concentration and meditation — not through external action, but inner thought and will. The earth yielded what was needed, as rasa (the essence of life) responded to the pure intentions of its inhabitants. Their strength and beauty (bala and varṇa) were natural outcomes of these pure manifestations. This perfection (siddhi) was also curative — eliminating disease altogether.
असंस्कार्यैः शरीरैश्च प्रजास्ताः स्थिरयौवनाः ।
तासां विशुद्धात्संकल्पाज्जायन्ते मिथुनाः प्रजाः । ५८ ॥
asaṃskāryaiḥ śarīraiśca prajāstāḥ sthirayauvanāḥ |
tāsāṃ viśuddhātsaṃkalpājjāyante mithunāḥ prajāḥ | 58 ||
Those beings, possessing bodies that required no rituals or sacraments, were endowed with steady youthfulness. From their pure intentions alone, offspring in the form of couples were born.
In Kṛta Yuga, the Golden Age, bodies were inherently pure, not requiring saṁskāras (the purificatory rites typically necessary in later ages like Tretā or Kali). The beings had perpetual youth—not aging or decaying as modern humans do. Mental purity (viśuddha-saṅkalpa) alone was sufficient to manifest children, and these children naturally emerged in male-female pairs (mithuna). This reflects a non-physical or subtle plane of reproduction, based not on physical copulation but on divine will or thought.
समं जन्म च रूपं च म्रियन्ते चैव ताः समम् ।
तदा सत्यमलोभश्च क्षमा तुष्टिः सुखं दमः ॥ ५९ ॥
samaṃ janma ca rūpaṃ ca mriyante caiva tāḥ samam |
tadā satyamalobhaśca kṣamā tuṣṭiḥ sukhaṃ damaḥ || 59 ||
Their births and forms occur equally, and they also die at the same time. At that time, truthfulness, absence of greed, forbearance, contentment, happiness, and self-restraint prevail.
Virtues: Satyam (truth), Alobhaḥ (absence of greed), Kṣamā (forgiveness/patience), Tuṣṭiḥ (inner contentment), Sukham (blissful state), Damaḥ (restraint from sensory indulgence). These traits are natural qualities in Kṛta Yuga, not cultivated through effort — they are innate.
निर्विशेषास्तु ताः सर्वा रूपायुः शीलचेष्टितैः ।
अबुद्धिपूर्वकं वृत्तं प्रजानां जायते स्वयम् ॥ ६० ॥
nirviśeṣāstu tāḥ sarvā rūpāyuḥ śīlaceṣṭitaiḥ |
abuddhipūrvakaṃ vṛttaṃ prajānāṃ jāyate svayam || 60 ||
All those beings were without distinctions in appearance, lifespan, character, or behavior. Their actions arose naturally and spontaneously — not preceded by deliberation or intellectual intent.
No distinctions in physical form, lifespan, virtues, or behavior — equality was absolute. Beings acted spontaneously, guided by innate righteousness rather than mental calculation or learned ethics. Morality, behavior, and spiritual conduct emerged naturally, without instruction, doubt, or cognitive effort. In essence, the intellect (buddhi) was not required to guide right action — Dharma flowed instinctively.
अप्रवृत्तिः कृतयुगे कर्मणोः शुभपापयोः ।
वर्णाश्रमव्यवस्याश्च न तदाऽऽसन्न संकरः ॥ ६१ ॥
apravṛttiḥ kṛtayuge karmaṇoḥ śubhapāpayoḥ |
varṇāśramavyavasyāśca na tadā’’sanna saṃkaraḥ || 61 ||
In the Kṛta Yuga, there was no activity of virtuous or sinful deeds; nor were the social divisions of varṇa (castes) and āśrama (life stages) established; thus, no intermixture (saṅkara) existed at that time.
No karma-driven dichotomy: People did not act from a distinction of puṇya (virtue) or pāpa (sin). Action was pure and natural, not dualistically judged. Absence of social structuring: There were no formally defined castes (varṇas) or life stages (āśramas) — society functioned without institutional roles. No intermixing or confusion: Since divisions didn't exist, neither did their mixture or disorder (i.e., no varṇa-saṅkara, which later scriptures warn against).
अनिच्छाद्वेषयुक्तास्ते वर्तयन्ति परस्परम् ।
तुल्यरूपायुषः सर्वा अधमोत्तमवर्जिताः ॥ ६२ ॥
anicchādveṣayuktāste vartayanti parasparam |
tulyarūpāyuṣaḥ sarvā adhamottamavarjitāḥ || 62 ||
Without desire or hatred, they interacted harmoniously with one another. All were equal in form and lifespan, with none being inferior or superior.
No one was driven by personal desire (icchā) or hatred (dveṣa) — they lived without emotional turmoil or selfish ambition. All beings were alike in beauty and lifespan. The society was non-hierarchical — the notions of "better" or "worse," "higher" or "lower" were completely absent.
सुखप्राया ह्यशोकाश्च उत्पद्यन्ते कृते युगे ।
नित्यप्रहृष्टमनसो महासत्त्वा महाबलाः ॥६३॥
sukhaprāyā hyaśokāśca utpadyante kṛte yuge |
nityaprahṛṣṭamanaso mahāsattvā mahābalāḥ ||63||
In the Kṛta Yuga, beings are predominantly blissful and free from sorrow. They are born with ever-delighted minds, endowed with great spirit and immense strength.
In Kṛta Yuga beings are born into a state of natural happiness and peace, unaffected by sorrow. Their mental state is one of constant joy, without fluctuation or anxiety. They possess great inner strength (sattva) — moral and spiritual — and also physical might (bala). This describes a harmonious, utopian world, where the nature of beings aligns perfectly with dharma and cosmic order.
लाभालाभौ न तास्वास्तां मित्रामित्रे प्रियाप्रिये।
मनसा विषयस्तासां निरीहाणां प्रवर्तते ॥ ६४ ॥
lābhālābhau na tāsvāstāṃ mitrāmitre priyāpriye|
manasā viṣayastāsāṃ nirīhāṇāṃ pravartate || 64 ||
In them, there was neither gain nor loss, nor friend nor foe, nor affection nor aversion. Objects of the senses operated merely through the mind, for they were free of desire.
No dualities: The usual dualities of gain vs. loss, friend vs. enemy, like vs. dislike — did not exist. Beings lived in perfect equanimity. No egoic relationships: There was no bias, favoritism, or enmity in interpersonal relations. Pure perception: Even sense experiences (viṣayas) were processed purely through the mind, but without the distortion of desire (nirīhāḥ = desireless). The world was experienced without craving or aversion, which is akin to yogic detachment and sattvic purity.
न लिप्सन्ति हि ताऽन्योऽन्यं नानुगृह्णन्ति चैव हि ।
ध्यानं परं कृतयुगे त्रेतायां ज्ञानमुच्यते ॥ ६५ ॥
na lipsanti hi tā’nyo’nyaṃ nānugṛhṇanti caiva hi |
dhyānaṃ paraṃ kṛtayuge tretāyāṃ jñānamucyate || 65 ||
They do not covet one another, nor do they bestow favors upon one another. Meditation (dhyāna) is considered supreme in the Kṛta Yuga, while in the Tretā Yuga, it is knowledge (jñāna) that is declared supreme.
In Kṛta Yuga beings are so self-sufficient, fulfilled, and free of ego or attachment, that they do not desire anything from others, nor do they give favors, because there is no need for transactional relationships or charity. Life is lived in oneness and detachment. Dhyāna (meditative absorption) is the supreme spiritual practice—natural and spontaneous.
In Tretā Yuga, as the spiritual purity slightly diminishes, knowledge (jñāna) becomes the key means to salvation. The inner stillness of meditation (effortless in Kṛta) is now replaced by discursive understanding and study of scriptures as the main path.
Kṛta Yuga is complete renunciation, equality, effortless meditative stillness. In Tretā Yuga emerges individual learning, discrimination between good and evil, and the need for acquired knowledge to progress spiritually.
प्रवृत्तं द्वापरे यज्ञं (ज्ञो) दानं कलियुगे वरम् ।
सत्त्वं कृतं रजस्त्रेता द्वापरं तु रजस्तमौ ॥६६॥
pravṛttaṃ dvāpare yajñaṃ (jño) dānaṃ kaliyuge varam |
sattvaṃ kṛtaṃ rajastretā dvāparaṃ tu rajastamau ||66||
Sacrifice (yajña) was practiced in the Dvāpara Yuga, while charity (dāna) is considered the highest virtue in the Kali Yuga. The Kṛta Yuga was dominated by Sattva (purity and harmony); Tretā Yuga by Rajas (activity and passion); Dvāpara Yuga by a mix of Rajas and Tamas (ignorance and darkness).
as the yugas progress inner spiritual states degenerate, outer actions become more emphasized, then simplified, dharma becomes easier to practice, but less potent. So, in Kali Yuga—our current age—while complex yajñas are rare, simple charitable acts done with pure intent become the highest form of virtue.
कलौ तमस्तु विज्ञेयं युगवृत्तवशेन तु ।
कालः कृते युगे त्वेष तस्य संख्यां निबोधत ॥ ६७॥
kalau tamastu vijñeyaṃ yugavṛttavaśena tu |
kālaḥ kṛte yuge tveṣa tasya saṃkhyāṃ nibodhata || 67||
In the Kali Yuga, darkness (Tamas) is to be understood as dominant, in accordance with the nature and course of that age. As for the Kṛta Yuga, this is the time span — now, you may understand its enumeration.
चत्वारि तु सहस्राणि वर्षाणां तत्कृतं युगम्।
संध्यांशो तस्य दिव्यानि शतान्यष्टौ च संख्यया ॥ ६८ ॥
तदा तासां बभूवाऽऽयुर्न च क्लेशविपत्तयः ।
catvāri tu sahasrāṇi varṣāṇāṃ tatkṛtaṃ yugam|
saṃdhyāṃśo tasya divyāni śatānyaṣṭau ca saṃkhyayā || 68 ||
tadā tāsāṃ babhūvā’’yurna ca kleśavipattayaḥ |
The Kṛta Yuga consists of four thousand divine years. Its twilight portion (Sandhyāṁśa) amounts to eight hundred divine years. During that time, people had long lifespans, and no afflictions or misfortunes occurred.
ततः कृतयुगे तस्मिन्संध्यांशे हि गते तु वै ।। ६९ ।।
पादावशिष्टो भवति युगधर्मस्तु सर्वशः ।
tataḥ kṛtayuge tasminsaṃdhyāṃśe hi gate tu vai || 69 ||
pādāvaśiṣṭo bhavati yugadharmastu sarvaśaḥ |
Then, when the twilight portion (sandhyāṁśa) of the Kṛta Yuga passes, only one-fourth (a single pāda) of the Yuga Dharma (virtue or righteous conduct of that age) remains in full.
संध्यायामप्यतीतायामन्तकाले युगस्य तु ॥ ७० ॥
पादतश्चावशिष्टे तु संध्याधर्मो युगस्य तु ।
एवं कृते तु निःशेषे सिद्धिस्त्वन्तर्दधे तदा ।। ७१ ।।
saṃdhyāyāmapyatītāyāmantakāle yugasya tu || 70 ||
pādataścāvaśiṣṭe tu saṃdhyādharmo yugasya tu |
evaṃ kṛte tu niḥśeṣe siddhistvantardadhe tadā || 71 ||
And when even the sandhyā (twilight transition) of the Yuga has elapsed — that is, at the final phase of the Age — then only one fourth of the dharma of the twilight remains.
Thus, when the Kṛta Yuga is entirely exhausted, then even the spiritual perfections (siddhis) of that age disappear.
तस्यां स सिद्धौ भ्रष्टायां मानस्यामभवत्ततः ।
सिद्धिरन्या युगे तस्मिस्त्रेतायामन्तरे कृता ॥ ७२ ॥
tasyāṃ sa siddhau bhraṣṭāyāṃ mānasyāmabhavattataḥ |
siddhiranyā yuge tasmistretāyāmantare kṛtā || 72 ||
When that mental siddhi (the effortless, mind-born perfection) declined, then, in the next age, namely the Tretā Yuga, a different kind of siddhi was established — born of effort and ritual action, not of pure mental will.
सर्गादौ या मयाष्टौ तु मानस्यो वै प्रकीर्तिताः ।
अष्टौ ताः क्रमयोगेन (ण) सिद्धयो यान्ति संक्षयम् ॥७३ ॥
sargādau yā mayāṣṭau tu mānasyo vai prakīrtitāḥ |
aṣṭau tāḥ kramayogena (ṇa) siddhayo yānti saṃkṣayam ||73||
At the beginning of creation, the eightfold mind-born siddhis which I had proclaimed — these eight perfections, in due sequential order, decline and perish gradually.
Here is the explanation of the Aṣṭa Siddhis (Eight Yogic Powers). These eight powers are considered supernatural perfections arising from intense spiritual discipline, particularly when the mind is fully purified and concentrated. In the Kṛta Yuga, these siddhis were said to manifest naturally in the mind-born progeny, but they gradually diminished over time, as dharma declined through the Yugas.
The first siddhi is Aṇimā (अणिमा), which grants the power to become infinitely small, like an atom. This allows a yogi to become invisible or to pass through the tiniest of spaces by reducing their form to a subtle, imperceptible level. The second siddhi is Mahimā (महिमा), the power to become infinitely large. A yogi endowed with this power can expand their body or presence to cosmic proportions, encompassing vast space. The third siddhi is Garimā (गरिमा), the ability to become incredibly heavy, so much so that even the strongest forces cannot move the yogi. This signifies immovability and weight beyond normal physical comprehension. The fourth siddhi is Laghimā (लघिमा), the power to become extremely light, almost weightless. With this power, one can levitate or float effortlessly, defying gravity. The fifth siddhi is Prāpti (प्राप्ति), which grants the power to reach or obtain anything anywhere, including the ability to travel vast distances instantly or access objects or realms beyond the physical reach. The sixth siddhi is Prākāmya (प्राकाम्य), the ability to fulfill any desire at will, especially those related to the manipulation of natural elements—such as walking on water, entering another's body, or remaining unharmed in fire. The seventh siddhi is Iśitva (ईशित्व), which represents the power of lordship or mastery over the forces of nature and the will of others. It denotes dominion and command over creation. The eighth and final siddhi is Vaśitva (वशित्व), the power of subjugation or control, allowing one to bring all beings, elements, or even minds under one’s influence.
कल्पादौ मानसी होषा सिद्धिर्भवति सा कृते ।
मन्वन्तरेषु सर्वेषु चतुर्युगविभागशः ।।७४ ।।
वर्णाश्रमाचारकृतः कर्मसिद्धोद्भवः स्मृतः ।
kalpādau mānasī hoṣā siddhirbhavati sā kṛte |
manvantareṣu sarveṣu caturyugavibhāgaśaḥ ||74 ||
varṇāśramācārakṛtaḥ karmasiddhodbhavaḥ smṛtaḥ |
In the beginning of the Kalpa, the accomplishment (siddhi) was purely mental, prevailing throughout the Kṛta Yuga. But across all the Manvantaras, in alignment with the divisions of the four Yugas, it is said that siddhi arises from action — specifically from adherence to varṇa and āśrama duties, and from righteous conduct (ācāra).
In the Kṛta Yuga (Golden Age), siddhi was spontaneous and mental (mānasī), arising from pure thought and will, requiring no external ritual or societal structure. But as creation evolves through successive Manvantaras (cosmic cycles of Manu), and the Yugas divide, this original state deteriorates. In later ages, siddhi must be earned, not by thought alone but by karma — actions rooted in one’s social role (varṇa) and life stage (āśrama). This emphasizes the growing complexity of the world and the increasing need for structured spiritual discipline. The verse underscores how dharma, structure, and duty become necessary pathways to regain what was once naturally present.
संध्या कृतस्य पादेन संध्यापादेन चांशतः ॥ ७५ ॥
कृतसंध्यांशका ह्येते त्रींस्त्रीन्यादान्परस्परान् ।
हसन्ति युगधर्मैस्ते तपः श्रुतबलायुषैः ॥ ७६ ॥
saṃdhyā kṛtasya pādena saṃdhyāpādena cāṃśataḥ || 75 ||
kṛtasaṃdhyāṃśakā hyete trīṃstrīnyādānparasparān |
hasanti yugadharmaiste tapaḥ śrutabalāyuṣaiḥ || 76 ||
The twilight periods (sandhyās) of the Kṛta Yuga — each a quarter in duration — combine to produce these overlapping segments. These quarter portions of Kṛta’s twilight combine in threes, one with the next, forming transitional overlaps between Yugas. Within these transitions, the Yuga-dharmas (traits of each age) manifest, accompanied by austerity, scriptural knowledge, strength, and longevity.
These verses describe how the transition between Yugas occurs:
Each Yuga has twilight periods (sandhyā) before and after — transitional phases representing gradual change rather than abrupt shifts. The Kṛta Yuga, being the most sattvic and pure, has its twilight portions distributed and overlapping with subsequent Yugas in threefold segments. These overlapping "quarter Yuga" transitions serve as bridges, where the qualities (dharma) of both the outgoing and incoming Yuga blend. During these overlapping periods, austerity (tapas), scriptural wisdom (śruta), strength (bala), and long life (āyuṣaḥ) still flourish — legacies of the Golden Age — but they diminish progressively with time.
ततः कृतांशे क्षीणे तु बभूव तदनन्तरम् ।
त्रेतायां युगमन्यत्तु कृतांशमृषिसत्तमाः ।।७७ ।
तस्मिन्क्षीणे कृतांशे तु तच्छिष्टासु प्रजास्विह ।
कल्पादौ संप्रवृत्तायास्त्रेतायाः प्रमुखे तदा ॥ ७८ ॥
प्रणश्यति तदा सिद्धिः कालयोगेन नान्यथा ।
तस्यां सिद्धौ प्रनष्टायामन्या सिद्धिरवर्तत ॥ ७९ ॥
tataḥ kṛtāṃśe kṣīṇe tu babhūva tadanantaram |
tretāyāṃ yugamanyattu kṛtāṃśamṛṣisattamāḥ ||77 |
tasminkṣīṇe kṛtāṃśe tu tacchiṣṭāsu prajāsviha |
kalpādau saṃpravṛttāyāstretāyāḥ pramukhe tadā || 78 ||
praṇaśyati tadā siddhiḥ kālayogena nānyathā |
tasyāṃ siddhau pranaṣṭāyāmanyā siddhiravartata || 79 ||
O best among sages! When the portion of the Kṛta Yuga had waned, then, immediately after, another Yuga arose — the Tretā. Yet, a fragment of the Kṛta Yuga remained into the Tretā.
As that remnant of the Kṛta Age diminished and the new Tretā began at the dawn of the Kalpa, the Siddhi (spiritual perfection) of the previous age vanished — by the power of Time, and by no other means. And when that Siddhi was lost, a new kind of Siddhi arose in its place.
अपां सौक्षम्ये प्रतिगते तदा मेघात्मना तु तौ ।
मेघेभ्यः स्तनयित्नुभ्यः प्रवृत्तं वृष्टिसर्जनम् ॥ ८० ॥
apāṃ saukṣamye pratigate tadā meghātmanā tu tau |
meghebhyaḥ stanayitnubhyaḥ pravṛttaṃ vṛṣṭisarjanam || 80 ||
When the subtle essence of the waters had withdrawn, then, in the form of clouds, those [waters] took on embodiment. From those thunderous clouds, the process of rain-creation (vṛṣṭi-sarjanam) was initiated.
This verse marks a cosmic transition in environmental order as the world moves into the Tretā Yuga.
The waters, once subtle and abundant in the earlier Kṛta Yuga (where all needs were fulfilled by will or rasa), now recede from direct availability. As a result of this withdrawal, the natural water cycle changes — water must now be gathered through rainfall, a process mediated by clouds and thunder.
The verse poetically describes this change: the subtle liquidity becomes embodied (takes on a form as clouds), and rain begins as a new method of nourishment for beings. This reflects how sustenance now requires effort and external processes, signaling a shift from the innate harmony of the Kṛta Yuga to a more conditioned existence in the Tretā Yuga.
सकृदेव तथा वृष्ट्या संयुक्ते पृथिवीतले ।
प्रादुरासंस्तदा तासां वृक्षास्तु गृहसंस्थिताः ॥८१॥
sakṛdeva tathā vṛṣṭyā saṃyukte pṛthivītale |
prādurāsaṃstadā tāsāṃ vṛkṣāstu gṛhasaṃsthitāḥ ||81||
Then, with just a single shower of rain falling upon the surface of the earth, there suddenly sprang forth for those beings trees that grew directly beside their dwellings.
This verse beautifully illustrates how nature was still bountiful and responsive in the early Tretā Yuga. Just one rainfall was enough to awaken the fecundity of the earth — indicating a world not yet hardened or barren. Trees grew spontaneously and conveniently, right next to homes, suggesting minimal toil and a continued echo of the effortless prosperity from the Kṛta Yuga. The verse subtly contrasts current human experience, where multiple seasons of labor and planning are required for vegetation, with an earlier age where natural harmony and divine favor made survival and prosperity easy.
सर्वप्रत्युपभोगस्तु तासां तेभ्यः प्रजायते ।
वर्तयन्ति हि तेभ्यस्तास्त्रेतायुगमुखे प्रजाः ॥ ८२ ॥
sarvapratyupabhogastu tāsāṃ tebhyaḥ prajāyate |
vartayanti hi tebhyastāstretāyugamukhe prajāḥ || 82 ||
The full range of enjoyments for them emerges from those trees (grown at their dwellings), and from them the people of the Tretā Yuga continue their lives and sustenance.
This verse continues describing the early Tretā Yuga, where trees, spontaneously grown near their homes (as described in the previous verse), become the central source of sustenance and enjoyment for the beings.
The phrase "sarva-pratyupabhogaḥ" implies that all needs were provided by these divine or wish-fulfilling trees.
Life remains semi-effortless, though the need for engagement with physical resources has begun — a step away from the purely mind-born realities of the Kṛta Yuga. It marks a transitional stage, where material support becomes necessary, yet is still abundant and freely available.
ततः कालेन महता तासामेव विपर्ययात् ।
रागलोभात्मको भावस्तदा ह्याकस्मिकोऽभवत् ॥ ८३ ॥
tataḥ kālena mahatā tāsāmeva viparyayāt |
rāgalobhātmako bhāvastadā hyākasmiko’bhavat || 83 ||
Then, after a great expanse of time, due to a gradual decline in their own nature, there suddenly arose within them a disposition rooted in desire and greed.
After a long and harmonious period, the beings of the Tretā Yuga begin to decline morally and spiritually. The change is not triggered by external calamity, but by an internal inversion (viparyaya) — a turning away from their original, sattvic nature.
The emergence of rāga (desire/attachment) and lobha (greed) signals the onset of imbalance, leading eventually to conflict, possession, and social differentiation. Notably, this corruption of intent is described as sudden (akasmika) — an abrupt shift after ages of purity.
This lays the groundwork for the increasing complexity, inequality, and struggle that will dominate the later Yugas.
यत्तद्भवति नारीणां जीवितान्ते तदाऽर्तवम् ।
तदा तद्वै न भवति पुनर्युगबलेन तु ॥ ८४ ॥
yattadbhavati nārīṇāṃ jīvitānte tadā’rtavam |
tadā tadvai na bhavati punaryugabalena tu || 84 ||
That which, in earlier times, occurred in women only at the end of life — namely, enstruation — no longer remained confined to that stage, due to the influence of the changing Yuga.
तासां पुनः प्रवृत्तं तु मासे मासे तदार्तवम् ।
ततस्तेनैव योगेन वर्ततां मिथुने तदा ॥ ८५ ॥
tāsāṃ punaḥ pravṛttaṃ tu māse māse tadārtavam |
tatastenaiva yogena vartatāṃ mithune tadā || 85 ||
In them (the women), menstruation began to recur every month; and thus, by that very means, physical union (sexual intercourse) became the prevailing mode of reproduction.
This verse marks a turning point in human physiology and reproduction across the Yugas.
Menstruation, which was rare or linked to end-of-life in previous ages, now becomes a cyclical, monthly occurrence. With this, sexual union (mithuna) becomes the natural and prevailing process of procreation.
The shift described here is emblematic of the broader descent from the pure, mind-born creation of Kṛta Yuga to the more material, embodied existence of later Yugas such as Tretā and Dvāpara. This evolution also reflects the onset of karma-bound, desire-driven reproduction, governed by biological rhythms and sensual activity.
तासां तत्कालभावित्वान्मासि मास्युपगच्छताम् ।
अकाले ह्यार्तवोत्पत्तिर्गर्भोत्पत्तिरजायत॥८६॥
tāsāṃ tatkālabhāvitvānmāsi māsyupagacchatām |
akāle hyārtavotpattirgarbhotpattirajāyata||86||
As women gradually came to follow the monthly rhythm of union in accordance with time, menstruation began to occur even outside its natural season — and as a result, conception and the formation of embryos began to take place.
विपर्ययेण तासां त तेन कालेन भाविना ।
प्रणश्यन्ति ततः सर्वे वृक्षास्ते गृहसंस्थिताः ॥ ८७॥
viparyayeṇa tāsāṃ ta tena kālena bhāvinā |
praṇaśyanti tataḥ sarve vṛkṣāste gṛhasaṃsthitāḥ || 87||
Due to the gradual reversal of their nature and the overpowering force of time, all those trees that once grew abundantly around dwellings were destroyed.
प्रादुर्बभूवुस्तासां च वृक्षास्ते गृहसंस्थिताः ।
वस्त्राणि च प्रसूयन्ते फलान्याभरणानि च ॥८८॥
prādurbabhūvustāsāṃ ca vṛkṣāste gṛhasaṃsthitāḥ |
vastrāṇi ca prasūyante phalānyābharaṇāni ca ||88||
Once again, for those people, trees arose and flourished near their dwellings. These trees produced garments, fruits, and ornaments.
ततस्तेषु प्रनष्टेषु विभ्रान्ता व्याकुलेन्द्रियः ।
अभिध्यायन्ति तां सिद्धिं सत्याभिध्यायिनस्तदा ।। ८९ ।।
tatasteṣu pranaṣṭeṣu vibhrāntā vyākulendriyaḥ |
abhidhyāyanti tāṃ siddhiṃ satyābhidhyāyinastadā || 89 ||
Then, when those (wish-fulfilling trees) were lost, the people — bewildered and with agitated senses — began to intensely yearn for that former siddhi (attainment), those who truly focused on that goal meditated upon it with unwavering resolve.
तेष्वेव जायते तासां गन्धर्वरसान्वितम् ।
अमाक्षिकं महावीर्य पुटके पुटके मधु ॥ ९० ॥
teṣveva jāyate tāsāṃ gandharvarasānvitam |
amākṣikaṃ mahāvīrya puṭake puṭake madhu || 90 ||
Then, within those very trees, there arose honey — rich in the essence and delight of the Gandharvas, unmade by bees (amākṣikam), of great potency, manifesting in every single leaf-cup or blossom (puṭake puṭake).
This verse describes a divine and miraculous non-bee honey (amākṣikam), arising spontaneously from trees as a gift of nature and subtle energy.
It is said to be suffused with "Gandharva essence" — a metaphor indicating an aesthetic delight, aroma, and possibly even celestial properties.
Each blossom or leaf-cup (puṭaka) contains this potent, sweet elixir, reflecting the lingering blessings of earlier Yugas, where nature directly fulfilled desires without labor or harm. It represents a transitional grace: though the earlier siddhis are lost, a subtler form of sustenance still remains.
तेन ता वर्तयन्ति स्म सुखे त्रेतायुगस्य वै ।
हृष्टतुष्टास्तया सिद्ध्या प्रजा वै विगतज्वराः ।। ९१ ॥
tena tā vartayanti sma sukhe tretāyugasya vai |
hṛṣṭatuṣṭāstayā siddhyā prajā vai vigatajvarāḥ || 91 ||
By that [divine honey], they sustained themselves happily in the Tretā Yuga. Joyful and content due to that siddhi (attainment), the progenies lived free of affliction, untouched by disease or fever.
This verse emphasizes the early blessed state of the Tretā Yuga, when although the full siddhis of the Kṛta Yuga had waned, remnants of divine provision remained.
The amākṣika honey mentioned in the previous verse served as both sustenance and medicine, keeping the beings nourished, joyful, and immune to disease — a reflection of lingering sattvic harmony.
This also subtly underscores the gradual decline of spiritual power across the Yugas, from mental creation and bliss in Satya Yuga, to divine but material aid in Tretā, foreshadowing further loss in Dvāpara and Kali.
पुनः कालान्तरेणैव पुनर्लोभावृतास्तु ताः ।
वृक्षांस्तान्पर्यगृह्णन्त मधु वा माक्षिकं बलात् ॥ ९२॥
punaḥ kālāntareṇaiva punarlobhāvṛtāstu tāḥ |
vṛkṣāṃstānparyagṛhṇanta madhu vā mākṣikaṃ balāt || 92||
But with the passing of time, they were once again overcome by greed. They seized those trees by force and extracted from them the honey by force.
This marks a turning point in the moral decline of beings during the Tretā Yuga. From enjoying divinely given, effortless abundance (like bee-less honey) in earlier times, they now begin to act out of greed, no longer in harmony with nature.
Instead of passively receiving nature’s gifts, they start exploiting it — forcibly extracting honey and nectar from the trees. The mention of "balāt" (by force) signals the birth of violence and possessiveness, introducing a clear deviation from the sattvic ideal of earlier ages.
This also echoes the broader Purāṇic theme: that with each passing Yuga, greed, effort, and suffering increase, while purity and effortless joy diminish.
तासां तेनापचारेण पुनर्लोककृतेन वै।
प्रनष्टा मधुना सार्धं कल्पवृक्षाः क्वचित्क्वचित् ॥ ९३ ॥
tāsāṃ tenāpacāreṇa punarlokakṛtena vai|
pranaṣṭā madhunā sārdhaṃ kalpavṛkṣāḥ kvacitkvacit || 93 ||
Because of that transgression, again committed by the people, the wish-fulfilling trees (kalpavṛkṣas) perished in various places, vanishing along with the divine honey they bore.
The kalpavṛkṣas, symbolic of effortless providence and divine generosity, could not withstand misuse. Their disappearance marks a cosmic retraction of grace — a recurring theme in Purāṇic cosmology where adharma (unrighteous behavior) leads to the loss of divine boons.
Notably, the trees did not perish universally but "kvacit kvacit" — in scattered locations.
तस्यामेवाल्पशिष्टायां संध्याकालवशात्तदा ।
प्रावर्तन्त तदा तासां द्वन्द्वान्यभ्युत्थितानि तु ॥ ९४ ॥
tasyāmevālpaśiṣṭāyāṃ saṃdhyākālavaśāttadā |
prāvartanta tadā tāsāṃ dvandvānyabhyutthitāni tu || 94 ||
In that very remnant phase, due to the influence of the twilight period between the two ages, there emerged once again among them the dualities — the pairs — that had arisen anew.
This is the transition from Treta to Dvāpara, illustrating the cyclical degradation of spiritual and natural harmony. With only a little sanctity left from the earlier age (Kr̥ta or Treta), and under the influence of the Sandhyākāla (the twilight or junction period), the manifestation of dualities begins again.
These “dvandvas” symbolize not only gendered reproduction (couples) but also the rise of opposites: pleasure-pain, gain-loss, love-hate — signaling the onset of karmic entanglement and samsāra’s complexity.
This verse subtly marks a cosmic pivot where unity (ekatva) gives way to duality (dvandva), and mental purity recedes before emerging emotional and physical polarities.
शीतवातातपैस्तीव्रंस्ततस्ता दुःखिता भृशम्।
द्वन्द्वैस्ताः पीड्यमानास्तु चक्रुरावरणानि च ।। ९५ ।
śītavātātapaistīvraṃstatastā duḥkhitā bhṛśam|
dvandvaistāḥ pīḍyamānāstu cakrurāvaraṇāni ca || 95 |
Afflicted severely by the intense cold, winds, and scorching heat, tormented by these dualities (dvandvas) of climate, they (the beings) began to create coverings and shelters for protection.
This marks a crucial shift in human experience. The once blissful and effortless existence gives way to suffering caused by nature’s extremes — cold, heat, and wind. No longer protected by divine harmony or nature’s abundance, the beings are exposed to the harshness of the world. This leads to a significant civilizational milestone: the construction of clothing and dwellings — a response to environmental dualities (dvandvas).
कृत्वा द्वन्द्वप्रतीकारं निकेतानि हि भेजिरे ।
पूर्वं निकामचारास्ते अनिकेताश्रया भृशम्॥९६॥
kṛtvā dvandvapratīkāraṃ niketāni hi bhejire |
pūrvaṃ nikāmacārāste aniketāśrayā bhṛśam||96||
Having constructed shelters to counter the duality of opposites (such as heat and cold), they then entered into dwellings for protection. Formerly, they had roamed freely at will, dwelling completely without houses, dependent only on nature.
Once self-sufficient and shelterless, the beings of earlier ages were spontaneously joyous wanderers — free from the compulsion of shelter. But with the rise of environmental hardship, they created dwellings as a response to natural adversities (the dvandvas). This transition illustrates a deep civilizational change — from natural harmony to structured living, from a free-roaming existence to domesticated, protected settlement.
यथायोग्यं यथाप्रीति निकेतेष्ववसन्पुनः ।
मरुधन्वसु निम्नेषु पर्वतेषु नदीषु च ॥ ९७ ॥
yathāyogyaṃ yathāprīti niketeṣvavasanpunaḥ |
marudhanvasu nimneṣu parvateṣu nadīṣu ca || 97 ||
According to suitability and individual comfort, they once again settled into dwellings — in deserts, low-lying plains, mountains, and by rivers.
संश्रयन्ति च दुर्गाणि धन्वानं शाश्वतोदकम् ।
यथायोगं यथाकामं समेषु विषमेषु च ॥ ९८ ॥
saṃśrayanti ca durgāṇi dhanvānaṃ śāśvatodakam |
yathāyogaṃ yathākāmaṃ sameṣu viṣameṣu ca || 98 ||
They took shelter in fortified places, in arid plains, and near perennial water sources, according to suitability and desire, whether in even terrains or in uneven, rugged landscapes.
This shows the evolution from natural, free-ranging existence to one driven by defense, sustenance, and comfort, signaling the gradual rise of civilization and geopolitical awareness.
आरब्धास्ते निकेता वै(वै) कर्तुं शीतोष्णवारणम् ।
ततः संस्थापयामास खेटानि च पुराणि च ॥ ९९ ॥
ārabdhāste niketā vai(vai) kartuṃ śītoṣṇavāraṇam |
tataḥ saṃsthāpayāmāsa kheṭāni ca purāṇi ca || 99 ||
Those dwellings were then established for the protection against heat and cold. Thereafter, they began to found villages (kheṭas) and towns (purāṇis).
This reflects the emergence of organized society, urban planning, and the need for communal living in response to environmental and social challenges.
ग्रामांश्चैव यथाभागं तथैवान्तः पुराणि च ।
तासामायामविष्कम्भान्संनिवेशान्तराणि च ॥ १०० ॥
grāmāṃścaiva yathābhāgaṃ tathaivāntaḥ purāṇi ca |
tāsāmāyāmaviṣkambhānsaṃniveśāntarāṇi ca || 100 ||
And villages were laid out in proportional divisions, as were the inner quarters of towns (or possibly palaces’ inner areas or harem zones); their lengths and breadths, and the spatial intervals between the structures were all systematically arranged.
चक्रुस्तदा यथाप्रज्ञं (मित्वा मित्वाऽऽत्मनोऽङगुलैः ।
मनोऽर्थानि प्रमाणानि तदा प्रभृति चक्रिरे ॥ १०१ ॥
cakrustadā yathāprajñaṃ (mitvā mitvā’’tmano’ṅagulaiḥ |
mano’rthāni pramāṇāni tadā prabhṛti cakrire || 101 ||
Then, as per their individual intellect, they began measuring spaces repeatedly, using their own fingers as units. From that time onward, they established standards of measurement based on concepts formed in the mind.
This verse describes the origin of standardized measurements in ancient times. People used their own fingers as a starting point for measuring — a universal early method. Cognition and reasoning played a central role — they devised mental concepts of size, space, and proportion. This moment marks the systematic onset of architecture, mathematics, and metrology in Vedic civilization. It highlights how practical needs (like building villages and homes) led to intellectual evolution in terms of creating measurable standards and abstract spatial ideas.
यथाङ्गुलप्रदेशांस्त्रीन्हस्तकिष्कुधनूंषि च ।
दश त्वङ्गुलपर्वाणि प्रदेश: संज्ञितस्तु तैः ॥ १०२ ॥
अष्टाङ्गुलः प्रदेशिन्या व्यास: प्रादेश उच्यते ।
तालः स्मृतो मध्यमया गोकर्णश्चाप्यनामया । । १०३ ॥
yathāṅgulapradeśāṃstrīnhastakiṣkudhanūṃṣi ca |
daśa tvaṅgulaparvāṇi pradeśa: saṃjñitastu taiḥ || 102 ||
aṣṭāṅgulaḥ pradeśinyā vyāsa: prādeśa ucyate |
tālaḥ smṛto madhyamayā gokarṇaścāpyanāmayā | | 103 ||
As per the finger-based units of measurement, the measures such as Pradeśa, Hasta, Kiṣku, and Dhanus were defined. A length of ten aṅgulas (finger-joints) was designated as one Pradeśa. A span of eight aṅgulas measured with the index finger (pradeśinī) was known as Prādeśa (a standard unit of diameter). The measure called Tāla was determined using the middle finger (madhyamā), and the Gokarṇa (lit. "cow’s ear") was defined by the span from the tip of the thumb to the ring finger (anāmā).
कनिष्ठया वितस्तिस्तु द्वादशाङ्गुल उच्यते ।
रनिरङ्गुलपर्वाणि संख्यया त्वेकविंशतिः ॥ १०४ ॥
kaniṣṭhayā vitastistu dvādaśāṅgula ucyate |
raniraṅgulaparvāṇi saṃkhyayā tvekaviṃśatiḥ || 104 ||
The Vitasti (span), measured from the little finger (kaniṣṭhā) to the thumb, is said to be twelve aṅgulas (finger-breadths) in length. The unit known as Ratni, composed of aṅgula-joints, is counted to be exactly twenty-one aṅgulas in measure.
चतुर्विंशतिभिश्चैव हस्तः स्यादङ्गलानि तु ।
किष्कुः स्मृतो द्विरत्निस्तु द्विचत्वारिंशदङ्गुलम् (?) |
caturviṃśatibhiścaiva hastaḥ syādaṅgalāni tu |
kiṣkuḥ smṛto dviratnistu dvicatvāriṃśadaṅgulam (?) |
The Hasta (cubit), it is said, consists of twenty-four aṅgulas (finger-breadths). The measure called Kiṣku is regarded as equal to two Ratnis, which amounts to forty-two aṅgulas in length.
चतुर्हस्तं धनुर्दण्डो नालिकायुगमेव च।
धनुः सहस्त्रे द्वे तत्र गव्यूतिस्तैर्विभाव्यते ॥ १०६ ॥
caturhastaṃ dhanurdaṇḍo nālikāyugameva ca|
dhanuḥ sahastre dve tatra gavyūtistairvibhāvyate || 106 ||
A Dhanu or Daṇḍa (staff-measure) is equal to four Hastas, which is also equivalent to two Nālikās. With two thousand such Dhanus, a unit called Gavyūti is thereby reckoned.
A Dhanu (also called Daṇḍa) equals 4 Hastas or 2 Nālikās. Since 1 Hasta = 24 Aṅgulas, 1 Dhanu = 96 Aṅgulas. Gavyūti, a much larger measure, is 2000 Dhanus, traditionally understood as the distance a cow’s lowing can be heard — often interpreted as roughly 2 miles / ~3.2 km in modern equivalence. These units were vital in land surveying, cosmology, and ritual geography in Purāṇic literature.
अष्टौ धनः सहस्राणि योजनं तैर्निरुच्यते ।
एतेन योजनेनैव संनिवेशस्ततः कृतः ॥ १०७ ॥
aṣṭau dhanaḥ sahasrāṇi yojanaṃ tairnirucyate |
etena yojanenaiva saṃniveśastataḥ kṛtaḥ || 107 ||
Eight thousand Dhanus (or Dandas) are defined as one Yojana. By means of this unit — the Yojana — the layout or territorial site was established thereafter.
Yojana is the primary large-scale unit used to measure distances between cities, islands, or even celestial spheres.
This emphasizes that spatial organization (saṁniveśa) — whether of cities, habitations, or sacred sites — was carried out using this standard Yojana. It reflects how sacred geography and civic planning were deeply rooted in cosmologically informed measurement systems.
चतुर्णामेव दुर्गाणां स्वसमुत्थानि त्रीणि तु ।
चतुर्थं कृत्रिमं दुर्गं तस्य वक्ष्याम्यहं विधिम् ।। १०८ ।।
caturṇāmeva durgāṇāṃ svasamutthāni trīṇi tu |
caturthaṃ kṛtrimaṃ durgaṃ tasya vakṣyāmyahaṃ vidhim || 108 ||
Of the four types of forts (Durgas), three arise naturally by themselves; the fourth is an artificial fort — and I shall now explain the method of its construction.
सौधोच्चवप्रप्राकारं सर्वतश्चातकावृतम् ।
तदेकं स्वस्तिकद्वारं कुमारीपुरमेव च ।। १०९ ।।
saudhoccavapraprākāraṃ sarvataścātakāvṛtam |
tadekaṃ svastikadvāraṃ kumārīpurameva ca || 109 ||
It is surrounded on all sides by towering palatial buildings, elevated platforms, and defensive walls. Encircling it entirely are the Cātakas (fortification lines). There is a single main entrance — the Svastikadvāra — and within it lies the Kumārīpura, the women's inner city.
This verse begins the architectural description of the kṛtrimadurga (artificial fort). The external structure is grand, including palaces (saudha) and raised embankments (vapra) protected by ramparts (prākāra). The entire complex is enclosed by Cātakas, likely interpreted as towers, bastions, or additional fortification layers. Within the fortress lies the Kumārīpura, the inner quarters designated for women, a common feature in ancient Indian city plans, often symbolizing the protected inner realm.
स्रोतसीसंहतद्वारं निखातं पुनरेव च ।
हस्ताष्टौ च दश श्रेष्ठा नवाष्टौ वाऽपरे मताः ॥ ११०॥
srotasīsaṃhatadvāraṃ nikhātaṃ punareva ca |
hastāṣṭau ca daśa śreṣṭhā navāṣṭau vā’pare matāḥ || 110||
The main gate is constructed close to the water channels (srotas), and is firmly embedded (into the ground or walls). Its ideal width is considered to be eight to ten hastas, while some others regard nine or eight hastas as the preferred measurements.
खेटानां नगराणां च ग्रामाणां चैव सर्वशः ।
त्रिविधानां च दुर्गाणां पर्वतोदकबन्धनम्।। १११।।
kheṭānāṁ nagarāṇāṁ ca grāmāṇāṁ caiva sarvaśaḥ |
trividhānāṁ ca durgāṇāṁ parvato-daka-bandhanam || 111 ||
The boundaries of khetas (hamlets), cities, and villages, as well as the three natural types of forts, are defined and enclosed by mountains (parvata) and water bodies (udaka).
The three natural types of Durgas (forts) referred to here—Parvata-durga (hill-fort), Jala-durga (water-fort), and Vana-durga (forest-fort)—are said to be protected by terrain and hydrological features, as opposed to the artificial fort (kṛtrimadurga) mentioned earlier.
त्रिविधानां च दुर्गाणां विष्कम्भायाममेव च ।
योजनानां च विष्कम्भमष्टभागार्धमायतम् ॥ ११२ ॥
trividhānāṃ ca durgāṇāṃ viṣkambhāyāmameva ca |
yojanānāṃ ca viṣkambhamaṣṭabhāgārdhamāyatam || 112 ||
As for the three types of forts, their width (viṣkambha) and length are to be reckoned. The enclosure (viṣkambha), in terms of Yojanas, should be one-half of one-eighth of a Yojana in length.
This verse offers a mathematical guideline for planning fortifications in ancient architecture. The enclosure or viṣkambha—which refers to the horizontal expanse or breadth of a fort—is specified here with precision: 1 Yojana ≈ 8–9 miles (roughly 13–14.5 km), ⅛ of a Yojana ≈ 1.625 km, half of that = approximately 812–900 meters.
So the standard enclosure width of these forts is to be ½ of ⅛ of a Yojana, indicating that ancient fort planning had standardized proportional geometries, even when using large-scale units.
परमार्थार्धमायामं प्रागुदक्प्रवणं पुरम् ।
छिन्नकर्णं विकर्णं तु व्यजनं कृतसंस्थितम् ॥ ११३ ॥
paramārthārdhamāyāmaṃ prāgudakpravaṇaṃ puram |
chinnakarṇaṃ vikarṇaṃ tu vyajanaṃ kṛtasaṃsthitam || 113 ||
The ideal town should have a length equal to one-half (or a quarter) of its greatest extent, and it should slope gently toward the east and the north. Its layout should resemble a fan — broad, breezy, and shaped with cut or bent corners, suited for proper ventilation and circulation.
वृत्तं हीनं च दीर्घं च नगरं न प्रशस्यते ।
चतुरस्त्रार्जवं दिक्स्थं प्रशस्तं वै पुरं पुरम्॥११४॥
vṛttaṃ hīnaṃ ca dīrghaṃ ca nagaraṃ na praśasyate |
caturastrārjavaṃ diksthaṃ praśastaṃ vai puraṃ puram||114||
A city that is round, irregular, or excessively elongated is not considered commendable. But a city that is quadrangular, symmetrical, and oriented correctly with respect to the cardinal directions — that indeed is praised as an ideal city.
चतुर्विंशतिराद्यं तु हस्तनष्टशता परम् ।
अत्र मध्यं प्रशंसन्ति ह्रस्वोत्कृष्टविवर्जितम् ।। ११५ ।।
caturviṃśatirādyaṃ tu hastanaṣṭaśatā param |
atra madhyaṃ praśaṃsanti hrasvotkṛṣṭavivarjitam || 115 ||
The initial measure is twenty-four (Hastas), and the superior (or extended) measure is a hundred less than a full hundred (i.e., 824 - 100 = 724 or similarly derived). Among these, the middle size — which avoids both excess and deficiency — is the most praised.
अथ किष्कुशतान्यष्टौ प्राहुर्मुख्यं निवेशनम् ।
नगरादर्ध विष्कम्भं खेटं ग्रामं ततो बहिः ॥ ११६ ॥
atha kiṣkuśatānyaṣṭau prāhurmukhyaṃ niveśanam |
nagarādardha viṣkambhaṃ kheṭaṃ grāmaṃ tato bahiḥ || 116 ||
Then, eight hundred Kiskus (a linear measure) is said to be the extent of a primary settlement (mukhya-niveśana). At half that width from the city lies the Kheta (a suburban region), and beyond that, the village (grāma) is situated.
The core city (niveśana) spans 800 Kiṣkus in extent. The Kheta, defined in earlier texts as a "half-city" or urban fringe, lies at half the viṣkambha (breadth) from the main city boundary. The Grāma (village) is placed beyond the Kheta, likely forming a ringed pattern of habitation. This layout reflects a planned urban-rural hierarchy found in classical Indian town planning, as discussed in Purāṇic and Vāstu texts.
नगराद्येोजनं खेटं खेटाग्रामोऽर्धयोजनम् ।
द्विक्रोशे परमा सीमा क्षेत्रसीमा चतुर्धनुः ।। ११७ ॥
nagarādyeojanaṃ kheṭaṃ kheṭāgrāmo’rdhayojanam |
dvikrośe paramā sīmā kṣetrasīmā caturdhanuḥ || 117 ||
From the city (nagara) lies the Kheta at a distance of one Yojana. From the Kheta, the village (grāma) is located half a Yojana further. The outermost boundary (paramā sīmā) lies at two Krośas, and the field boundary (kṣetra-sīmā) is fixed at a distance of four Dhanus.
Kheta, or suburban zone, lies 1 Yojana (≈ 8–9 miles) from the city. The village (Grāma) lies ½ Yojana (≈ 4–4.5 miles) beyond the Kheta. The maximum territorial limit (paramā sīmā) is placed at 2 Krośas (1 Krośa ≈ 2 Yojanas). The Kṣetra-sīmā, the agricultural boundary, is only 4 Dhanus (≈ 24 Hastas or ~48 feet) from the cultivated plots.
विशद्धनूंषि विस्तीर्णो दिशां मार्गस्तु तैः कृतः ।
विंशद्धनुर्ग्राममार्गः सीमामार्गे दशैव तु ।। ११८ ॥
viśaddhanūṃṣi vistīrṇo diśāṃ mārgastu taiḥ kṛtaḥ |
viṃśaddhanurgrāmamārgaḥ sīmāmārge daśaiva tu || 118 ||
The directional roads were constructed by them with a breadth of twenty Dhanus in clear space. The village (grāma) roads too were twenty Dhanus wide, while the boundary roads were just ten Dhanus in breadth.
20 Dhanus ≈ 120 feet ≈ 36.6 meters
This verse describes the urban and rural road planning system as laid down in ancient times. It distinguishes three types of roads:
Main roads leading in cardinal directions — 20 Dhanus wide. Village roads — also 20 Dhanus wide, suggesting easy access and transportation. Boundary or perimeter roads — 10 Dhanus wide, likely for demarcation and light travel.
धनूंषि दश विस्तीर्णः श्रीमान्राजपथः स्मृतः ।
नवाजिरथनागानामसम्बाधः सुसंचरः ॥ ११९ ॥
dhanūṃṣi daśa vistīrṇaḥ śrīmānrājapathaḥ smṛtaḥ |
navājirathanāgānāmasambādhaḥ susaṃcaraḥ || 119 ||
The royal road (Rājapatha), renowned and splendid, is described as ten Dhanus wide. It is broad and unobstructed, allowing smooth and spacious passage for horses, chariots, elephants, and men alike.
Different measurements are found in Arthaśāstra (Book II, Chapter 4) Main Roads (Rājapatha): Specified as 4 Dandas wide. Conversion: 1 Danda ≈ 6 feet (1.83 meters); thus, 4 Dandas ≈ 24 feet (7.3 meters). Roads to Military Stations and Villages: 8 Dandas wide. Conversion: 8 Dandas ≈ 48 feet (14.6 meters). Roads to Gardens and Forests: 4 Dandas wide. Elephant Paths: 2 Dandas wide. Chariot Roads: 5 Aratnis wide. Conversion: 1 Aratni ≈ 1.5 feet (0.46 meters); thus, 5 Aratnis ≈ 7.5 feet (2.3 meters). Cattle Paths: 4 Aratnis wide. Pedestrian Paths: 2 Aratnis wide.
धनूंषि चैव चत्वारि शाखारथ्यास्तु तैः कृताः ।
गृहस्थ्योपरथ्याश्च द्विकाश्चाप्युपरथ्यकाः।। १२० ।।
dhanūṃṣi caiva catvāri śākhārathyāstu taiḥ kṛtāḥ |
gṛhasthyoparathyāśca dvikāścāpyuparathyakāḥ|| 120 ||
They constructed the branching lanes (śākhā-rathyāḥ) to be four Dhanus wide. The residential lanes (gṛhastha-upa-rathyāḥ) and the narrower cross-lanes (upa-rathyakāḥ) were made half that—two Dhanus wide.
Main lanes (śākhā-rathyāḥ) branching off the royal or major avenues were moderately broad—4 Dhanus (~24 meters). Residential access lanes (gṛhasthyoparathyāḥ) were narrower—2 Dhanus (~12 meters)—meant for private housing access. Upa-rathyakāḥ are even smaller passageways—either pedestrian-only or for light transit.
घण्टापथश्चतुष्पादस्त्रिपदं च गृहान्तरम् ।
वृत्तिमार्गास्त्वर्धपदं प्राग्वंशः पदिकः स्मृतः ॥ १२१॥
ghaṇṭāpathaścatuṣpādastripadaṃ ca gṛhāntaram |
vṛttimārgāstvardhapadaṃ prāgvaṃśaḥ padikaḥ smṛtaḥ || 121||
The Ghaṇṭāpatha (main sounding avenue) is said to be four pāda-s (quarters of a Dhanus) wide. The interior of the house measures three pāda-s. The Vṛttimārga (service or ritual route) is of half a pāda, and the Prāgvaṁśa (anteroom or ritual antechamber) is called Padika—a unit of one pāda (step-length).
अवस्करं परवाहं पदमात्रं समन्ततः ।
कृतेषु तेषु स्थानेषु पुनश्चक्रुर्गृहाणि वै ॥ १२२ ॥
avaskaraṃ paravāhaṃ padamātraṃ samantataḥ |
kṛteṣu teṣu sthāneṣu punaścakrurgṛhāṇi vai || 122 ||
The waste channels (Avaskara) and the water outlets (Paravāha), each extending to the length of a single step all around, were laid out in designated spots; then, upon those established sites, the houses were once again constructed.
This describes a phase of early urban planning, where infrastructure precedes habitation. Drainage systems (both for refuse and wastewater) were planned carefully — each one limited to a step-length radius for accessibility and hygiene. Once these essential civic facilities were arranged in fixed locations, residential construction followed.
This reflects an advanced approach to settlement planning during the Treta Yuga — placing sanitation and layout before architecture.
यथा ते पूर्वमासन्वै वृक्षास्तु गृहसंस्थिताः ।
तथा कर्तुं समारब्धाश्चिन्तयित्वा पुनः पुनः ।। १२३ ।
yathā te pūrvamāsanvai vṛkṣāstu gṛhasaṃsthitāḥ |
tathā kartuṃ samārabdhāścintayitvā punaḥ punaḥ || 123 ||
Just as those trees had formerly existed, situated harmoniously within the household premises, they began efforts to re-establish them — contemplating the task over and over again.
वृक्षाश्चैव गताः शाखा न ताश्चैव परागताः ।
अत ऊर्ध्वं गताश्चान्या एवं तिर्यग्गताः पुरा । । १२४॥
vṛkṣāścaiva gatāḥ śākhā na tāścaiva parāgatāḥ |
ata ūrdhvaṃ gatāścānyā evaṃ tiryaggatāḥ purā | | 124||
The trees indeed perished, and their branches did not extend outward again. Thereafter, other ones grew upward — thus, in ancient times, they also grew obliquely.
बुद्ध्वाऽन्विष्यंस्तथान्यायोवृक्षशाखा यथा गताः ।
तथा कृतास्तु तैः शाखास्तस्माच्छालास्तु ताः स्मृताः ।।
buddhvā’nviṣyaṃstathānyāyovṛkṣaśākhā yathā gatāḥ |
tathā kṛtāstu taiḥ śākhāstasmācchālāstu tāḥ smṛtāḥ ||
Perceiving and examining the natural pattern — how the branches of trees had extended — they designed the structural beams (śākhās) accordingly. Hence, these constructions came to be known as Śālās (halls or apartments).
Ancient builders, guided by observation of how tree branches (śākhās) naturally spread, used this principle to design roof supports and layouts. The result of this nature-inspired design led to the formation of śālās, dwellings or halls that mirror the branching system of trees. This underscores how early architecture was biomimetic—patterned after nature—and how linguistic meaning emerged from such symbolic insight.
एवं प्रसिद्धा: शाखाभ्य: शालाश्चैव गृहाणि च ।
तस्मात्ता वै स्मृताः शाला: शालात्वं चैव तासु तत् ।।
evaṃ prasiddhā: śākhābhya: śālāścaiva gṛhāṇi ca |
tasmāttā vai smṛtāḥ śālā: śālātvaṃ caiva tāsu tat ||
Thus, from the branches (śākhās), the śālās (halls) and houses came to be established. Hence, they came to be known as śālās, and that very quality of being derived from branches (śālatva) was recognized in them.
प्रसीदति मनस्तासु मनः प्रसादयन्ति ताः ।
तस्माद्गृहाणि शालाश्च प्रासादाचैव संज्ञिताः । । १२७॥
prasīdati manastāsu manaḥ prasādayanti tāḥ |
tasmādgṛhāṇi śālāśca prāsādācaiva saṃjñitāḥ | | 127||
The mind finds peace in them, and they, in turn, bring about mental peace. Therefore, the houses (gṛhāṇi), halls (śālās), and palaces (prāsādas) came to be known by those very names.
This connects architecture with the psychology of peace. Not only are these structures (homes, halls, palaces) designed with inspiration from natural forms, but they also serve their highest purpose: to create inner calm and delight.
Thus, names like gṛha, śālā, and prāsāda are not mere labels — they reflect the function and effect these places have on the human spirit. This elegant etymological insight weaves together form, function, and feeling — a deeply holistic view of Vedic architecture.
कृत्वा द्वंद्वोपघातास्तांस्तान्वार्तोपायमचिन्तयन्।
नष्टेषु मधुना सार्धं कल्पवृक्षेषु वै तदा ॥ १२८ ॥
kṛtvā dvaṃdvopaghātāstāṃstānvārtopāyamacintayan|
naṣṭeṣu madhunā sārdhaṃ kalpavṛkṣeṣu vai tadā || 128 ||
Having undergone the afflictions caused by dualities (such as heat and cold), they began to ponder over practical means of sustenance (vārta-upāya). For, at that time, the wish-granting trees (kalpavṛkṣas), along with the honey, had perished completely.
Struck by the disappearance of divine bounty, people begin to consciously devise strategies for survival — initiating agriculture, trade, and practical livelihood (vārta). This symbolizes the shift from a mythical age of divine abundance to one of human initiative, marking the dawn of economic systems and toil-based society.
विषादव्याकुलास्ता वै प्रजास्तृष्णाक्षुधात्मिकाः ।
ततः प्रादुर्बभौ तासां सिद्धिस्त्रेतायुगे पुनः । । १२९ ।।
viṣādavyākulāstā vai prajāstṛṣṇākṣudhātmikāḥ |
tataḥ prādurbabhau tāsāṃ siddhistretāyuge punaḥ | | 129 ||
Tormented by sorrow, those beings — overwhelmed by thirst and hunger — then, once again, a new kind of accomplishment (siddhi) arose for them in the Tretā Yuga.
As spiritual and cosmic powers recede, human initiative and adaptation give rise to new means of survival and accomplishment.
वार्तार्थसाधिकाऽप्यन्या वृत्तिस्तासां हि कामतः ।
तासां वृष्ट्युदकानीह यानि निम्नैर्गतानि तु । । १३० ।।
vārtārthasādhikā’pyanyā vṛttistāsāṃ hi kāmataḥ |
tāsāṃ vṛṣṭyudakānīha yāni nimnairgatāni tu | | 130 ||
Their mode of livelihood shifted again, motivated by desire, toward the pursuit of agriculture and material gain. And the rainwaters — flowing downward — were actively sought and collected by them in low-lying areas.
The pure, effortless sustenance of earlier ages is replaced by a deliberate effort to seek and manage resources, especially rainwater. Desire (kāma) begins to influence livelihood — not in the purely hedonistic sense, but in the sense of intentional striving for sustenance and prosperity. The reference to low-lying areas (nimna) suggests early water management systems — like harvesting rainwater, digging wells, or redirecting flow for agriculture. This signals the emergence of organized settlement patterns, farming, and infrastructure — hallmarks of an evolving human society adapting to the decline of innate siddhis.
वृष्ट्या तदभवत्स्रोत: खातानि निम्नगाः स्मृताः ।
एवं नद्यः प्रवृत्तास्तु द्वितीये वृष्टिसर्जने ॥ १३१ ॥
vṛṣṭyā tadabhavatsrota: khātāni nimnagāḥ smṛtāḥ |
evaṃ nadyaḥ pravṛttāstu dvitīye vṛṣṭisarjane || 131 ||
From the rainfall were born the flowing currents — pits, dug-out channels, and low-lying streams took form and became known. Thus, rivers came into existence during this second advent of rainfall.
ये परस्तादपां स्तोका आपन्ना: पृथिवीतले ।
अपां भूमेश्च संयोगादोषध्यस्तासु चाभवन्॥१३२॥
ye parastādapāṃ stokā āpannā: pṛthivītale |
apāṃ bhūmeśca saṃyogādoṣadhyastāsu cābhavan||132||
Those small streams or stocks of water, which had descended and gathered upon the earth’s surface — from the union of water and soil, there sprang forth the herbs and medicinal plants.
पुष्पमूलफलिन्यस्तु ओषध्यस्ताः प्रजज्ञिरे ।
अफालकृष्टाश्चानुप्ता ग्राम्यारण्याश्चतुर्दश ।। १३३ ।।
puṣpamūlaphalinyastu oṣadhyastāḥ prajajñire |
aphālakṛṣṭāścānuptā grāmyāraṇyāścaturdaśa || 133 ||
Then were born fourteen types of plants — endowed with flowers, roots, and fruits. They arose naturally, without being ploughed or sown, both in villages and in the wild forests.
ऋतुपुष्पफलाश्चैव वृक्षा गुल्माश्च जज्ञिरे ।
प्रादुर्भावश्च त्रेतायां वार्तायामौषधस्य तु ॥ १३४॥
ṛtupuṣpaphalāścaiva vṛkṣā gulmāśca jajñire |
prādurbhāvaśca tretāyāṃ vārtāyāmauṣadhasya tu || 134||
Trees and shrubs arose, bearing seasonal blossoms and fruits. And in the Tretā Yuga, the medicinal and edible plants began to grow through agricultural means.
तेनौषधेन वर्तन्ते प्रजास्त्रेतायुगे तदा ।
ततः पुनरभूत्तासां रागो लोभश्च सर्वशः ।। १३५॥
अवश्यं भाविनाऽर्थेन त्रेतायुगवशेन तु ।
tenauṣadhena vartante prajāstretāyuge tadā |
tataḥ punarabhūttāsāṃ rāgo lobhaśca sarvaśaḥ || 135||
avaśyaṃ bhāvinā’rthena tretāyugavaśena tu |
By means of those herbs and plants, the living beings sustained themselves in the Tretā Yuga. But then, once again, desire and greed arose in them entirely—inevitably so, due to the destined evolution of things, under the influence of the Tretā Yuga.
ततस्ताः पर्यगृह्णन्त नदीक्षेत्राणि पर्वतान् ॥ १३६ ॥
वृक्षान्गुल्मौषधीश्चैव प्रसह्य तु यथाबलम् ।
tatastāḥ paryagṛhṇanta nadīkṣetrāṇi parvatān || 136 ||
vṛkṣāngulmauṣadhīścaiva prasahya tu yathābalam |
Then, they began to seize control—of the rivers, the cultivated lands, and the mountains; also the trees, bushes, and medicinal herbs—by force, each according to their strength.
As rāga (attachment) and lobha (greed) grow, people begin to possess and exploit the natural world. What was once shared spontaneously now becomes subject to control and appropriation, often through force. Nature becomes property: Forests, fields, and rivers are no longer just resources—they are seized. Emergence of hierarchy: The phrase yathā-balam implies inequality—the strong take more, the weak less. A mark of decline: This change signifies a deep moral shift from harmony (dharma) to domination.
सिद्धात्मानस्तु ये पूर्वं व्याख्याताः प्राक्कृते मया ।।
ब्रह्मणा मानवास्ते वा उत्पन्ना योजनादिह ।
siddhātmānastu ye pūrvaṃ vyākhyātāḥ prākkṛte mayā ||
brahmaṇā mānavāste vā utpannā yojanādiha |
Those self-realized beings (siddhātmānaḥ), whom I had earlier described in the Prākṛta Sarga (the primary creation), were brought forth here as human beings by the will and design (yojana) of Brahmā.
शान्ताश्च शुष्मिणश्चैव कर्मिणो दुःखिनस्तदा ।। १३८ ॥
ततः प्रवर्तमानास्ते त्रेतायां जज्ञिरे पुनः ।
ब्राह्मण: क्षत्रिया वैश्याः शूद्रा द्रोहिजनास्तथा ॥ १३९ ॥
śāntāśca śuṣmiṇaścaiva karmiṇo duḥkhinastadā || 138 ||
tataḥ pravartamānāste tretāyāṃ jajñire punaḥ |
brāhmaṇa: kṣatriyā vaiśyāḥ śūdrā drohijanāstathā || 139 ||
They were peaceful (śāntāḥ), vigorous (śuṣmiṇaḥ), active in deeds (karmaṇaḥ), and yet afflicted by sorrow (duḥkhinaḥ) at that time. Then, impelled into worldly activity, they were reborn once again in the Treta Yuga — as Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas, Śūdras, and even as the treacherous or seditious ones (drohijanāḥ).
This shows a karmic descent and diversification of beings who were once siddhas or perfected souls. Though they began as peaceful, potent, and dharmically active, the burden of karma and sorrow led to a variegated rebirth. In Treta Yuga, society becomes structured by varṇa: Brāhmaṇa to Śūdra — and even includes those of rebellious or adharmic tendencies (drohijanāḥ). This marks the beginning of moral fragmentation in the cosmic timeline.
भाविताः पूर्वजातीषु कर्मभिश्च शुभाशुभैः ।
इतस्तेभ्यो बला ये तु सत्यशीला हिंसकाः ॥ १४०॥
bhāvitāḥ pūrvajātīṣu karmabhiśca śubhāśubhaiḥ |
itastebhyo balā ye tu satyaśīlā hiṃsakāḥ || 140||
They were assigned (or shaped) into their former castes based on their previous karmas — both virtuous and sinful. From among these, those who were powerful, some upheld truthfulness (satya-śīlaḥ), while others became violent (hiṁsakāḥ).
वीतलोभा जितात्मानो निवसन्ति स्म तेषु वै ।
प्रतिगृह्णन्ति कुर्वन्ति तेभ्यश्चान्येऽल्पतेजसः ।। १४१ ॥
vītalobhā jitātmāno nivasanti sma teṣu vai |
pratigṛhṇanti kurvanti tebhyaścānye’lpatejasaḥ || 141 ||
Those free from greed (vīta-lobhāḥ), with self-controlled minds (jitātmānaḥ), indeed dwelled among them. Others of lesser spiritual strength (alpa-tejasaḥ) received from them and acted on their behalf.
तेषां कर्माणि कुर्वन्ति तेभ्यश्चैवाबलास्तु ये ।
परिचर्यास्व (सु) वर्तन्ते तेभ्यश्चान्येऽल्पतेजसः ॥ १४२ ॥
teṣāṃ karmāṇi kurvanti tebhyaścaivābalāstu ye |
paricaryāsva (su) vartante tebhyaścānye’lpatejasaḥ || 142 ||
Those who were weaker (abalāḥ) performed duties (karmāṇi) on behalf of the stronger ones (teṣām). Still others of lesser brilliance (alpa-tejasaḥ) engaged in acts of service (paricaryāsu) toward them as well.
एवं विप्रतिपन्नेषु प्रपन्नेषु परस्परम्।
तेन दोषेण तेषां ता ओषध्यो मिषतां तदा ॥ १४३॥
evaṃ vipratipanneṣu prapanneṣu parasparam|
tena doṣeṇa teṣāṃ tā oṣadhyo miṣatāṃ tadā || 143||
Thus, when beings became mutually opposed or interdependent, due to that fault (tena doṣeṇa), the medicinal herbs (oṣadhyaḥ) lost their clarity while being seen.
Ethical disharmony among beings has ecological repercussions, subtly highlighting a worldview where spiritual disorder leads to material degeneration — even in the realm of oṣadhi (plants).
प्रनष्टा ह्रियमाणा वै मुष्टिभ्यां सिकता यथा ।
अग्रसद्भर्युगबलाद्ग्राम्यारण्याश्चतुर्दश ।। १४४ ।।
pranaṣṭā hriyamāṇā vai muṣṭibhyāṃ sikatā yathā |
agrasadbharyugabalādgrāmyāraṇyāścaturdaśa || 144 ||
Perishing, being carried away like sand in handfuls, due to the dominant force of the Yuga’s burden, the fourteen types of rural and forest lands declined.
फलं गृह्णन्ति पुष्पैश्च पुष्पं पत्रैश्च या पुनः ।।
ततस्तासु प्रनष्टासु विभ्रान्तास्ताः प्रजास्तदा । । १४५ ॥
phalaṃ gṛhṇanti puṣpaiśca puṣpaṃ patraiśca yā punaḥ ||
tatastāsu pranaṣṭāsu vibhrāntāstāḥ prajāstadā || 145 ||
They obtained fruit from flowers, and flowers again from leaves. Then, when those (plants) were destroyed, the beings (prajāḥ) became bewildered.
स्वयंभुवं प्रभुं जग्मुः क्षुधाविष्टाः प्रजापतिम् ।
वृत्त्यर्थमभिलिप्सन्त आदौ त्रेतायुगस्य तु । । १४६ ।।
svayaṃbhuvaṃ prabhuṃ jagmuḥ kṣudhāviṣṭāḥ prajāpatim |
vṛttyarthamabhilipsanta ādau tretāyugasya tu | | 146 ||
Overcome by hunger, they approached Svayambhū, the lord and progenitor (Prajāpati), desiring to obtain the means of sustenance, at the beginning of the Tretā Yuga.
The Tretā Yuga is symbolically the era when humans begin institutionalized action (karma), including yajña (sacrifice) and varṇāśrama (social order).
ब्रह्मा स्वयंभूर्भगवाञ्ज्ञात्वा तासां मनीषितम् ।
युक्तं प्रत्यक्षदृष्टेन दर्शनेन विचार्य च ॥ १४७ ॥
brahmā svayaṃbhūrbhagavāñjñātvā tāsāṃ manīṣitam |
yuktaṃ pratyakṣadṛṣṭena darśanena vicārya ca || 147 ||
Brahmā, the self-born and revered Lord, having understood their intention (of the beings), considered what was appropriate by means of direct observation and reflection.
ग्रस्ताः पृथिव्या ओषध्यो ज्ञात्वा प्रत्यदुहत्पुनः ।
कृत्वा वत्सं सुमेरुं तु दुदोह पृथिवीमिमाम् ॥ १४८ ॥
grastāḥ pṛthivyā oṣadhyo jñātvā pratyaduhatpunaḥ |
kṛtvā vatsaṃ sumeruṃ tu dudoha pṛthivīmimām || 148 ||
Having known that the medicinal herbs had been swallowed by the Earth, he milked this Earth once again, making Mount Sumeru the calf.
दुग्धेयं गौस्तदा तेन बीजानि पृथिवीतले ।
जज्ञिरे तानि बीजानि ग्रामारण्यास्तु ताः पुनः ।। १४९॥
ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ता: सप्तसप्तदशास्तु ताः ।
व्रीहयश्च यवाश्चैव गोधूमा अणवस्तिलाः ॥ १५० ॥
dugdheyaṃ gaustadā tena bījāni pṛthivītale |
jajñire tāni bījāni grāmāraṇyāstu tāḥ punaḥ || 149||
oṣadhyaḥ phalapākāntā: saptasaptadaśāstu tāḥ |
vrīhayaśca yavāścaiva godhūmā aṇavastilāḥ || 150 ||
This Earth, treated as a cow, was then milked by him — and seeds emerged upon the surface of the Earth. From those seeds arose again both cultivated (grāmya) and wild (āraṇya) plants. These plants, culminating in the ripening of fruits, became of seven times seventeen kinds (i.e., 119 types). Among them were rice (vrīhi), barley (yava), wheat (godhūma), small millet (aṇu), and sesame (tila).
प्रियंगवो ह्युदाराश्च कारूषाश्च सवी (ती) नका: ।
माषा मुद्गा मसूराश्च निष्पावा: सकुलत्थकाः ।। १५१ ।।
priyaṃgavo hyudārāśca kārūṣāśca savī (tī) nakā: |
māṣā mudgā masūrāśca niṣpāvā: sakulatthakāḥ || 151 ||
The priyaṅgus (panic seeds), the udāras, the kārūṣas, and the savītīnakas, along with māṣas (black gram), mudgas (green gram), masūras (red lentils), niṣpāvas (flat beans), and kulatthakas (horse gram).
आढक्याश्चणकाश्चैव सप्तसप्तदशा: स्मृता ।
इत्येता ओषधीनां तु ग्राम्याणां जातयः स्मृताः ।। १५२ ।।
āḍhakyāścaṇakāścaiva saptasaptadaśā: smṛtā |
ityetā oṣadhīnāṃ tu grāmyāṇāṃ jātayaḥ smṛtāḥ || 152 ||
The āḍhakyas (pigeon peas) and caṇakas (chickpeas) too are considered among the seventeen sevens (i.e., 119). Thus, these are said to be the species of cultivated (grāmya) plants among the herbs.
ओषध्यो यज्ञियाचैव ग्राम्यारण्याश्चतुर्दश ।
व्रीहय: सयवा माषा गोधूमा अणवस्तिलाः ।। १५३ ।।
oṣadhyo yajñiyācaiva grāmyāraṇyāścaturdaśa |
vrīhaya: sayavā māṣā godhūmā aṇavastilāḥ || 153 ||
The sacrificial herbs (yajñiyāḥ oṣadhyaḥ), both cultivated (grāmya) and wild (āraṇya), were of fourteen types. These included: rice (vrīhi), barley (yava, along with), black gram (māṣa), wheat (godhūma), small grains (aṇava), and sesame (tila).
प्रियंगुसप्तमा ह्येते अष्टमी तु कुलस्थिका ।
श्यामाकास्त्वथ नीवारा जर्तिलाः सगवेधुका ॥ १५४ ॥
कुरुविन्दा वेणुयवास्तथा मर्कटकाश्च ये ।
ग्राम्यारण्याः स्मृता ह्येता ओषध्यस्तु चतुर्दश ॥ १५५ ॥
priyaṃgusaptamā hyete aṣṭamī tu kulasthikā |
śyāmākāstvatha nīvārā jartilāḥ sagavedhukā || 154 ||
kuruvindā veṇuyavāstathā markaṭakāśca ye |
grāmyāraṇyāḥ smṛtā hyetā oṣadhyastu caturdaśa || 155 ||
Priyaṅgu is the seventh among these, and the eighth is kulasthikā (horse gram). Then come śyāmākas (black millet), nīvāras (wild rice), jartilas (forest sesames), and gavedhukas (a sacred wild grain). Also kuruvindas, veṇu-yavas (bamboo grains), and markaṭakas — these fourteen plants, both cultivated and wild, are remembered as sacred oṣadhis.
उत्पन्नाः प्रथमा ह्येता आदौ त्रेतायुगस्य तु ।
अफालकृष्टा ओषध्यो ग्रामारण्यास्तु सर्वशः ॥ १५६ ॥
utpannāḥ prathamā hyetā ādau tretāyugasya tu |
aphālakṛṣṭā oṣadhyo grāmāraṇyāstu sarvaśaḥ || 156 ||
These were the first plants to emerge at the beginning of the Tretā Yuga — uncultivated and fruitless herbs, both cultivated (grāmya) and wild (āraṇya) in type.
वृक्षा गुल्मलता वल्ली वीरुधस्तृणजातयः ।
मूलैः फलैश्च रोहिण्यो गृह्णन्पुष्पैश्च जायते ( ? ) ॥ १५७॥
पृथ्वी दुग्धा तु बीजानि यानि पूर्वं स्वयंभुवा ।
ऋतुपुष्पफलास्ता वै ओषध्यो जज्ञिरे त्विह ॥ १५८ ॥
vṛkṣā gulmalatā vallī vīrudhastṛṇajātayaḥ |
mūlaiḥ phalaiśca rohiṇyo gṛhṇanpuṣpaiśca jāyate ( ? ) || 157||
pṛthvī dugdhā tu bījāni yāni pūrvaṃ svayaṃbhuvā |
ṛtupuṣpaphalāstā vai oṣadhyo jajñire tviha || 158 ||
Trees, shrubs, vines, creepers, herbaceous plants, and various grasses — those which grow by roots and bear fruits, blossoming through flowers — they manifest (again). The Earth, having been milked, yielded once more the very seeds that were formerly generated by the self-born (Svayambhū). With seasonal flowers and fruits, those very herbs and plants were thus born again here.
यदा प्रसृष्टा ओषध्यो न प्ररोहन्ति ताः पुनः ।
ततः स तासां वृत्त्यर्थं वार्तोपायं चकार ह ।। १५९ ॥
yadā prasṛṣṭā oṣadhyo na prarohanti tāḥ punaḥ |
tataḥ sa tāsāṃ vṛttyarthaṃ vārtopāyaṃ cakāra ha || 159 ||
When the herbs and plants, though released (or sown), failed to sprout again, then he (Brahmā), for their livelihood and sustenance, devised the method of agriculture (vārta-upāya).
Seeing that the plants no longer grew spontaneously, Brahmā introduces agriculture (vārta) — the human effort required to ensure food production.
This marks the institutionalization of cultivation: a shift from divinely sustained nature to man-aided fertility, representing the rise of karma-based society.
In Vedic cosmology, this moment reflects the transition from innate abundance to effort-based survival, foreshadowing the gradual loss of effortless sustenance and the necessity of śrama (toil). Vārta, one of the four puruṣārthas related to artha (livelihood), is here divinely sanctioned, giving agriculture sacred origin and purpose.
ब्रह्मा स्वयंभूर्भगवान्दृष्ट्वा सिद्धिं तु कर्मजाम् ।
ततः प्रभृत्यथौषध्यः कृष्टपच्यास्तु जज्ञिरे । । १६० ।।
brahmā svayaṃbhūrbhagavāndṛṣṭvā siddhiṃ tu karmajām |
tataḥ prabhṛtyathauṣadhyaḥ kṛṣṭapacyāstu jajñire | | 160 ||
Brahmā, the self-born and revered Lord, having witnessed the success of those (plants) born of human effort, from that time onward, the herbs and plants that ripen through cultivation (kṛṣṭa-pacyāḥ) came into being.
Initially, plants grew spontaneously; later, divine intervention restored them. But as nature's self-sufficiency declined, human labor (karma) became necessary. Brahmā, seeing that agriculture produced reliable results, then ordained the cultivation-based plants (kṛṣṭa-pacyāḥ), formalizing agriculture as a sacred, essential pursuit. Effort, guided by dharma, becomes essential in the later ages (from Tretā Yuga onward). Kṛṣṭa-pacya oṣadhis become both sacred and necessary, merging toil and transcendence.
संसिद्धायां तु वार्तायां ततस्तासां स्वयंभुवा ।
मर्यादाः स्थापयामास यथारब्धाः परस्परम् ॥१६१॥
saṃsiddhāyāṃ tu vārtāyāṃ tatastāsāṃ svayaṃbhuvā |
maryādāḥ sthāpayāmāsa yathārabdhāḥ parasparam ||161||
Once agriculture (vārta) had been successfully established, then the Self-born (Svayambhū) instituted regulations (maryādāḥ) among them, in accordance with how their activities had begun and how they related to one another.
With vārta (agriculture) now proven successful, Brahmā does not leave it unstructured — he establishes maryādāḥ: clear limits, laws, and ethical boundaries for its practice.
Maryādā is a loaded term in Dharma literature, connoting both ethical restraint and juridical boundaries. Here, it signals the origin of social regulation over natural resources, indicating that law and agriculture evolved together, under divine guidance — a reflection of Dharma’s integration into livelihood.
ये वै परिग्रहीतारस्तामसामासन्विधात्मकाः ।
इतरेषां कृतत्राणाः स्थापयामास क्षत्रियान् ।। १६२ ॥
ye vai parigrahītārastāmasāmāsanvidhātmakāḥ |
itareṣāṃ kṛtatrāṇāḥ sthāpayāmāsa kṣatriyān || 162 ||
Those who were possessors (or claimants) of material wealth and were of tamasic nature, though following formal regulations,he (Brahmā) established them as Kṣatriyas, assigning them the duty of protecting the others.
The divine ordination of the Kṣatriya class was based on:
Disposition (tāmasāḥ): They were of tamasic inclination — not in a purely negative sense, but suited for power, control, and protection. Function (kṛta-trāṇa): Their dharma was to protect others — i.e., those engaged in agriculture (vaiśyas), rituals (brāhmaṇas), or service (śūdras).
Social Ordering: Brahmā, observing tendencies and behaviors, didn't assign varṇa arbitrarily — it was responsive to inherent guna-karma (qualities and actions), reflecting Gītā 4.13: cāturvarṇyaṃ mayā sṛṣṭaṃ guṇa-karma-vibhāgaśaḥ (the fourfold order was created by Me, according to the division of guṇas and karmas).
This is realistic and dharmic logic behind varṇa-vyavasthā (social division): even those of tamasic nature, if aligned with formal discipline (vidhātmakāḥ), can play a sacred societal role — in this case, leadership, justice, and defense.
उपतिष्ठन्ति ये तान्वै यावन्तो निर्भयास्तथा ।
सत्यं ब्रह्म यथा भूतं ब्रुवन्तो ब्राह्मणाश्च ते ।। १६३ ।
upatiṣṭhanti ye tānvai yāvanto nirbhayāstathā |
satyaṃ brahma yathā bhūtaṃ bruvanto brāhmaṇāśca te || 163 ||
Those who attended upon them (i.e., the Kṣatriyas), and those who were fearless, who spoke the truth of Brahman as it truly is — they were known as Brāhmaṇas.
This verse defines Brāhmaṇas not by birth, but by:
Fearlessness (nirbhaya) Support of the ruling order (upatiṣṭhanti tān – attending upon Kṣatriyas) Speaking the truth of Brahman as it is (satyam brahma yathābhūtam), i.e., authentic spiritual knowledge, unaltered and direct.
This verse reinforces the Guṇa-Karma basis of varṇa, where Brāhmaṇas are fearless seekers and speakers of truth, not passive mystics, but active supporters of righteous rule, and defined by their speech, knowledge, and conduct, not mere heredity. It echoes the ideal of the ṛṣi-society, where truth (satya) and insight into Brahman determined status, not privilege.
ये चान्येऽप्यबालास्तेषां वैशसं कर्म संस्थिताः ।
कीनाशा नाशयन्ति स्म पृथिव्यां प्रागतन्द्रिताः ।। १६४ ।।
वैश्यान्येव तु तानाहु: कीनाशान्वृत्तिसाधकान् ।
'तु शोचन्तश्च द्रवन्तश्च परिचर्यासु ये रताः ।। १६५ ।।
ye cānye’pyabālāsteṣāṃ vaiśasaṃ karma saṃsthitāḥ |
kīnāśā nāśayanti sma pṛthivyāṃ prāgatandritāḥ || 164 ||
vaiśyānyeva tu tānāhu: kīnāśānvṛttisādhakān |
'tu śocantaśca dravantaśca paricaryāsu ye ratāḥ || 165 ||
And others, still immature or powerless, among them engaged in the profession of violence (vaiśasaṃ karma), became kīnāśas — those who destroyed (or tilled) the earth, actively without laziness. These kīnāśas, being practitioners of livelihood through destruction or cultivation, were regarded as Vaiśyas. Also included were those who mourned, ran about, and were devoted to service (paricaryāsu).
These verses describe the origin of the Vaiśya and Śūdra classes, not by birth but by function, aptitude, and karmic disposition.
The kīnāśa is a nuanced term — used in some texts for butchers, in others for ploughmen or cultivators. Here, it's inclusive of those who act upon the earth, whether through clearing, tilling, or slaughter.
Those who were bālāḥ (immature, weak) and not inclined toward higher philosophical or martial roles, yet remained active and hardworking, were assigned Vaiśya roles, supporting society through economy, food, and trade.
People who were emotionally reactive (śocantaḥ), constantly moving (dravantaḥ), and oriented to service (paricaryā) — these qualities lean toward Śūdra-type functions, though not named here yet.
निस्तेजसोऽल्पवीर्याश्च शूद्रांस्तानब्रवीत्तु सः ।
तेषां कर्माणि धर्माश्च ब्रह्मा तु व्यदधात्प्रभुः ।। १६६॥
nistejaso’lpavīryāśca śūdrāṃstānabravīttu saḥ |
teṣāṃ karmāṇi dharmāśca brahmā tu vyadadhātprabhuḥ || 166||
Those who were devoid of brilliance (nistejasaḥ) and had little strength (alpa-vīryāḥ), he (Brahmā) designated them as Śūdras. To them, the Lord Brahmā assigned appropriate duties (karmāṇi) and ethical roles (dharmāḥ).
Those who were lacking in spiritual energy (tejas) and physical or mental strength (vīrya), yet capable of service and practical contribution, were designated Śūdras.
Everyone has a place, and every place has its dharma. — The Śūdra is not condemned, but protected by definition and duty.
संस्थितौ प्राकृतायां तु चातुर्वर्ण्यस्य सर्वशः ।
पुनः प्रजास्तु ता मोहात्तान्धर्मान्तानपालयन्।। १६७॥
saṃsthitau prākṛtāyāṃ tu cāturvarṇyasya sarvaśaḥ |
punaḥ prajāstu tā mohāttāndharmāntānapālayan|| 167||
Even after the natural establishment of the complete fourfold social order (cāturvarṇya), the beings (prajāḥ), due to delusion (mohāt), again failed to uphold those righteous boundaries (dharmāntān).
वर्णधर्मैरजीवन्त्यो व्यरुध्यन्त परस्परम्।
ब्रह्मा तमर्थं बुद्ध्वा तु याथातथ्येन वै प्रभुः ।। १६८ ॥
क्षत्रियाणां बलं दण्डं युद्धमाजीवमादिशत् ।
याजनाध्यापनं चैव तृतीयं च प्रतिग्रहम् ॥ १६९ ॥
ब्राह्मणानां विभुस्तेषां कर्माण्येतान्यथाऽऽदिशत् ।
पाशुपाल्यं वाणिज्यं कृषिं चैव विशां ददौ । । १७० ॥
varṇadharmairajīvantyo vyarudhyanta parasparam|
brahmā tamarthaṃ buddhvā tu yāthātathyena vai prabhuḥ || 168 ||
kṣatriyāṇāṃ balaṃ daṇḍaṃ yuddhamājīvamādiśat |
yājanādhyāpanaṃ caiva tṛtīyaṃ ca pratigraham || 169 ||
brāhmaṇānāṃ vibhusteṣāṃ karmāṇyetānyathā’’diśat |
pāśupālyaṃ vāṇijyaṃ kṛṣiṃ caiva viśāṃ dadau | | 170 ||
As they failed to live according to the duties of their varṇas, conflicts arose among them. Perceiving the situation accurately, the Lord Brahmā addressed the matter as it truly was.
To the Kṣatriyas, he assigned physical power (bala), discipline/punishment (daṇḍa), and warfare (yuddha) as their livelihood. To Brāhmaṇas, he prescribed performing sacrifices (yājana), teaching (adhyāpana), and the third — receiving gifts (pratigraha).
To the Brāhmaṇas, the Lord assigned these duties; And to the Vaiśyas, he granted animal husbandry (pāśupālya), trade (vāṇijya), and agriculture (kṛṣi).
once varna-dharma was ignored, conflict and disorder followed. Brahmā, seeing this decline, reassessed and reset societal roles based on realism (yāthātathya = as it truly is).
शिल्पाजीवं भृतिं चैव शूद्राणां व्यदधात्प्रभुः ।
सामान्यानि तु कर्माणि ब्रह्मक्षत्रविशां पुनः ।। १७१ ।।
śilpājīvaṃ bhṛtiṃ caiva śūdrāṇāṃ vyadadhātprabhuḥ |
sāmānyāni tu karmāṇi brahmakṣatraviśāṃ punaḥ || 171 ||
The Supreme Lord (Brahmā) assigned to the Śūdras a livelihood based on crafts (śilpa) and service for hire (bhṛti). As for the Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas, and Vaiśyas, their respective duties remained the standard or prescribed ones.
Śūdras are assigned a livelihood through:
śilpa — encompassing arts, crafts, technical skills, including sculpture, carpentry, metalwork, weaving, etc. bhṛti — service-based occupations, typically labor offered in exchange for wages or support.
No occupation is inferior; each is:
Divinely assigned (vyadadhāt prabhuḥ) Essential for the collective Based on aptitude and function, not hierarchy of soul or birth.
The Vedic principle is that society operates harmoniously when each person performs their svadharma (own duty) with integrity and devotion.
यजनाध्ययनं दानं सामान्यानि तु तेषु च ।
कर्माजीवं ततो दत्त्वा तेभ्यश्चैव परस्परम् ।।१७२।
yajanādhyayanaṃ dānaṃ sāmānyāni tu teṣu ca |
karmājīvaṃ tato dattvā tebhyaścaiva parasparam ||172|
Sacrificing (yajña), study (svādhyāya), and gift-giving (dāna) were declared as common duties among them (the upper three varṇas). Then, assigning livelihood-based actions (karma-ājīva), he ordained their mutual interdependence in society.
Despite their specific dharmas, the Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, and Vaiśya share three core universal values: o Yajana – performing sacrifices o Adhyayana – studying scripture o Dāna – charitable giving
These are seen as foundational Vedic duties (sanātana-dharmas) essential for sustaining both spiritual and social order.
The latter half of the verse affirms the functional interdependence (parasparam) of the varṇas — no class is entirely self-sufficient; each performs karma as ājīva (livelihood) not only for itself, but also in service of others. This reinforces a non-hierarchical, cooperative model of society, grounded in shared values and reciprocal duties.
लोकान्तरेषु स्थानानि तेषां सिद्ध्याऽददात्प्रभुः ।
प्राजापत्यं ब्राह्मणानां स्मृतं स्थानं क्रियावताम् ।।१७३॥
lokāntareṣu sthānāni teṣāṃ siddhyā’dadātprabhuḥ |
prājāpatyaṃ brāhmaṇānāṃ smṛtaṃ sthānaṃ kriyāvatām ||173||
In various worlds (lokāntaras), the Lord assigned stations (positions/status) to each according to their accomplishments. For the Brāhmaṇas engaged in sacred actions (kriyāvatām), the Prājāpatya status is remembered as their ordained abode or role.
Brahmā, the cosmic creator, allots positions or states (sthānāni) to beings not arbitrarily, but based on their success (siddhi) in fulfilling their respective dharmas.
For Brāhmaṇas, who are kriyāvat — meaning actively performing sacrifices, svādhyāya, dāna, etc. — their designated spiritual station is called "Prājāpatya".
In this verse, "sthāna" suggests not just a physical realm, but a spiritual status or existential condition, and Prājāpatya here most likely refers to a loka or spiritual station, symbolic of ritual mastery and moral purity in the Brāhmaṇa ideal.
स्थानमैन्द्रं क्षत्रियाणां सङ्ग्रामेष्वपलायिनाम् ।
वैश्यानां मारुतं स्थानं स्वधर्ममुपजीविनाम् । । १७४ ॥
sthānamaindraṃ kṣatriyāṇāṃ saṅgrāmeṣvapalāyinām |
vaiśyānāṃ mārutaṃ sthānaṃ svadharmamupajīvinām | | 174 ||
The abode of Indra (aindra-sthāna) is assigned to the Kṣatriyas who do not flee from battle. The realm of the Maruts (māruta-sthāna) is allotted to the Vaiśyas who sustain themselves by adhering to their prescribed duties (svadharma).
गान्धर्वं शूद्रजातीनां प्रतिचारेण तिष्ठताम् ।
स्थानान्येतानि वर्णानां व्यत्याचारवतां स्वयम्।।१७५।।
gāndharvaṃ śūdrajātīnāṃ praticāreṇa tiṣṭhatām |
sthānānyetāni varṇānāṃ vyatyācāravatāṃ svayam||175||
To the Śūdra castes who remain steadfast in their duty of service (praticāra), the Gāndharva region is assigned. These are the respective stations (lokas or statuses) of the varṇas, determined personally by the Lord, for those who remain faithful to their duties without transgression.
ततः स्थितेषु वर्णेषु स्थापयामास चाऽऽश्रमान् ।
गृहस्थो ब्रह्मचारित्वं वानप्रस्थं सभिक्षुकम् ।। १७६ ॥
tataḥ sthiteṣu varṇeṣu sthāpayāmāsa cā’’śramān |
gṛhastho brahmacāritvaṃ vānaprasthaṃ sabhikṣukam || 176 ||
Then, once the varṇas were properly established, he (Brahmā) also instituted the four āśramas (stages of life): Householdership (gṛhastha), celibate studenthood (brahmacarya), forest-dwelling retreat (vānaprastha), and mendicancy (bhikṣu or sannyāsa).
आश्रमांश्चतुरो ह्येतान्पूर्वमास्थापयत्प्रभुः ।
वर्णकर्माणि ये केचित्तेषामिह न कुर्वते ॥ १७७ ॥
कुतः कर्माक्षितिं प्राहुराश्रमस्थानवासिनः ।
ब्रह्मा तान्स्थापयामास आश्रमान्नाम नामतः ॥ १७८ ॥
āśramāṃścaturo hyetānpūrvamāsthāpayatprabhuḥ |
varṇakarmāṇi ye kecitteṣāmiha na kurvate | | 177 ||
kutaḥ karmākṣitiṃ prāhurāśramasthānavāsinaḥ |
brahmā tānsthāpayāmāsa āśramānnāma nāmataḥ || 178 ||
The Supreme Lord (Brahmā) originally established these four āśramas (life stages). Yet those who do not perform the duties of their varṇa, even while dwelling in an āśrama, fail to attain the fruits of their rites.
Indeed, those residing in the āśrama-stages, without fulfilling karmic duties, are said to attain no reward (akṣiti) from their actions. Therefore, Brahmā formally established these āśramas by name, each with its own designated role.
Outer participation in an āśrama is not enough; one must perform karma in harmony with one's nature and station, otherwise, no merit (akṣiti) accrues. Hence, Brahmā establishes the āśramas formally (nāma-nāmataḥ) — not just as ideals, but as defined systems of conduct with precise duties.
This passage echoes the Bhagavad Gītā’s insistence on svadharma (one’s own duty): "Better one’s own dharma, though flawed, than another’s well-performed" (Gītā 3.35) Dharma must be unified in both external role and inner conduct to bear true fruit.
Authenticity and alignment with one’s innate tendencies and social duty are more important than the mere perfection of action. Even if you are not perfect in doing what is right for you, it is spiritually superior to doing someone else's duty—even if you excel at it—because it might not align with your soul’s path or nature (svabhāva). Imitation, however skillful, is dangerous (bhayāvahaḥ), as it leads to spiritual dissonance and karmic entanglement. It’s better to stumble on your true path than to succeed on someone else’s.
निर्देशार्थं ततस्तेषां ब्रह्मा धर्मानभाषत ।
प्रस्थानानि च तेषां वै यमांश्च नियमांश्च ह ॥१७९॥
nirdeśārthaṃ tatasteṣāṃ brahmā dharmānabhāṣata |
prasthānāni ca teṣāṃ vai yamāṃśca niyamāṃśca ha ||179||
Then, for the purpose of directing them (the people), Brahmā prescribed the dharmas—including their paths (prasthānas), and the corresponding restraints (yamās) and observances (niyamās).
One must not only occupy the right social/spiritual role, but also live ethically and intentionally within it.
चातुर्वर्ण्यात्मकः पूर्वं गृहस्थश्चाऽऽश्रमः स्मृतः ।
त्रयाणामाश्रमाणां च प्रतिष्ठा योनिरेव च ॥ १८०॥
cāturvarṇyātmakaḥ pūrvaṃ gṛhasthaścā’’śramaḥ smṛtaḥ |
trayāṇāmāśramāṇāṃ ca pratiṣṭhā yonireva ca || 180||
The Gṛhastha āśrama (householder’s life), which encompasses all four varṇas, is remembered as the first and foremost āśrama. It is both the foundation (pratiṣṭhā) and origin (yoni) of the other three āśramas.
Gṛhastha āśrama is the central pillar of the varṇāśrama system.
Though it follows brahmacarya in the sequence of life stages, it is deemed "pūrva" in importance and function, because it supports the other three āśramas materially and ritually and through the householder’s offerings, duties, and economic productivity, society’s spiritual and physical needs are fulfilled.
The Gṛhastha is described as both pratiṣṭhā – the foundation upon which others depend and yoni – the womb or origin from which the other āśramas are sustained
This is a fundamental principle in Dharmaśāstra and Smṛti texts (e.g., Manusmṛti 6.89), where the Gṛhastha is said to “support the three other āśramas as all beings depend on food.”
Gṛhastha āśrama is celebrated as the engine of dharma, sustaining the world through:
Yajña (sacrifice) Dāna (charity) Putra (progeny) Sambhāra (economic provision)
यथाक्रमं प्रवक्ष्यामि यमैश्च नियमैश्च ते ।
दाराग्नयोऽथाऽऽतिथेय इज्याश्राद्धक्रियाः प्रजाः ॥ १८१ ॥
इत्येष वै गृहस्थस्य समासाद्धर्मसंग्रहः ।
yathākramaṃ pravakṣyāmi yamaiśca niyamaiśca te |
dārāgnayo’thā’’titheya ijyāśrāddhakriyāḥ prajāḥ || 181 ||
ityeṣa vai gṛhasthasya samāsāddharmasaṃgrahaḥ |
I shall now explain, in due sequence, the householder’s duties, including ethical restraints (yamās) and personal observances (niyamās). These briefly comprise the religious obligations of a householder:
Marriage (dārāḥ), Maintenance of sacred fires (agnayaḥ), Hospitality toward guests (ātitheya), Performance of sacrifices (ijyā), Ancestor rites (śrāddha-kriyāḥ), And procreation (prajāḥ).
Such is the compendium of dharma for the gṛhastha, in summary.
This aligns closely with the Manusmṛti, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, and Dharmaśāstra traditions, which emphasize that the householder nourishes all āśramas through his yajñas, offerings, and duties.
“All the other three āśramas are sustained by the gṛhastha like spokes in a wheel by the hub.” — Manu 6.89
दण्डी च मेखली चैव ह्यधः शायी तथा जटी ।। १८२ ॥
गुरुशुश्रूषणां भैक्ष्यं विद्यार्थं ब्रह्मचारिणः ।
चीरपत्राजिनानि स्युर्धान्यमूलफलौषधम्॥ १८३॥
daṇḍī ca mekhalī caiva hyadhaḥ śāyī tathā jaṭī || 182 ||
guruśuśrūṣaṇāṃ bhaikṣyaṃ vidyārthaṃ brahmacāriṇaḥ |
cīrapatrājināni syurdhānyamūlaphalauṣadham|| 183||
A brahmacārī (celibate student) is one who:
Carries a staff (daṇḍī), Wears a sacred waist-girdle (mekhalī), Sleeps on the ground (adhaḥ-śāyī), Keeps matted locks (jaṭī), Serves the guru (guru-śuśrūṣaṇā), And begs for food (bhaiṣya) in pursuit of knowledge (vidyārtham).
He may possess:
Bark garments (cīra), Leaves (patra), Deerskins (ajina), And subsist on grain, roots, fruits, and medicinal herbs (dhānya, mūla, phala, auṣadha).
संध्ये वगाहश्च होमश्चारण्यवासिनाम्।
आसन्नमुसले भैक्षमस्तेयं शौचमेव च ॥ १८४ ॥
saṃdhye vagāhaśca homaścāraṇyavāsinām|
āsannamusale bhaikṣamasteyaṃ śaucameva ca || 184 ||
For forest-dwellers (vānaprasthas), the prescribed practices include:
Bathing at both twilights (saṃdhyā-snāna), Offering daily oblations (homa), Keeping a flail (musala) close at hand (symbol of agrarian self-reliance), Begging for alms (bhaikṣya) only when necessary, Non-stealing (asteya), and Purity (śauca) in all actions.
Vānaprastha is transitional — from the householder’s worldliness to the sannyāsin’s detachment.
Manusmṛti 6.1–8 and Yājñavalkya Smṛti, which define Vānaprastha as a life of disciplined simplicity, ideal for internalization and reflection.
अप्रमादोऽव्यवायश्च दया भूतेषु च क्षमा ।
अक्रोधो गुरुशुश्रूषा सत्यं च दशम स्मृतम् ॥ १८५ ॥
apramādo’vyavāyaśca dayā bhūteṣu ca kṣamā |
akrodho guruśuśrūṣā satyaṃ ca daśama smṛtam || 185 ||
The tenfold virtues remembered as essential include:
Diligent alertness (apramāda), Celibacy or abstention from sensual indulgence (avyavāya), Compassion toward all beings (dayā bhūteṣu), Forgiveness (kṣamā), Freedom from anger (akrodha), Service to the guru or elders (guru-śuśrūṣā), Truthfulness (satya) — the tenth and final one in the list.
The verse lists only seven explicit virtues, despite stating "satyam ca daśamam smṛtam" — "truth is remembered as the tenth."
The remaining three are implied or presumed known from tradition — such as:
ahiṃsā (non-violence) asteya (non-stealing) śauca (purity)
दशलक्षणको ह्येष धर्मः प्रोक्ताः स्वयंभुवा ।
भिक्षोर्व्रतानि पञ्चात्र पञ्चैवोपव्रतानि च ।। १८६ ॥
daśalakṣaṇako hyeṣa dharmaḥ proktāḥ svayaṃbhuvā |
bhikṣorvratāni pañcātra pañcaivopavratāni ca || 186 ||
This Dharma characterized by ten features (the Daśalakṣaṇa) was declared by Svayambhū (Brahmā). For the bhikṣu (renunciant), it consists of five principal vows (vratas) and five auxiliary vows (upavratās).
Bhikṣus (mendicants) live a life of renunciation, simplicity, and inner discipline.
The Daśalakṣaṇa Dharma, or “Dharma of Ten Characteristics,” is a spiritual and ethical framework especially enjoined for bhikṣus (mendicants or renunciants), as revealed by Svayambhū (Brahmā).
It consists of ten moral and disciplinary principles, divided into five main vows (vratas) and five auxiliary or supportive vows (upavratās). The primary vows cultivate core spiritual virtues such as forgiveness (kṣamā), humility (mārdava), honesty (ārjava), inner purity (śauca), and truthfulness (satya). These are the essential qualities for self-restraint and inward discipline.
The auxiliary vows further reinforce these foundations, including practices such as austerity (tapas), mantra recitation (japa), charity (dāna), cleanliness (śauca) in external and ritual acts, and devotion to God (īśvarapraṇidhāna).
Altogether, these ten disciplines are intended to guide the aspirant toward liberation, cultivating a life free of attachment, pride, and deceit. In the context of the Treta Yuga, when material desires and complexity increased in society, this tenfold dharma provided a stabilizing spiritual structure, anchoring the renunciants in a life of simplicity, discipline, and divine orientation.
आचारशुद्धिर्विनयः शौचं चाप्रतिकर्म च ।
सम्यग्दर्शनमित्येवं पञ्चैवोपव्रतान्यपि ।। १८७।।
ācāraśuddhirvinayaḥ śaucaṃ cāpratikarma ca |
samyagdarśanamityevaṃ pañcaivopavratānyapi || 187||
The five auxiliary vows (upavratās) are: purity of conduct (ācāra-śuddhi), modesty (vinaya), cleanliness (śauca), non-retaliation (apratikarma), and right vision (samyag-darśana).
Ācāra-śuddhiḥ (आचारशुद्धिः) – Purity of conduct: living with moral discipline in behavior and customs. It implies consistency between one’s inner values and external actions. Vinayaḥ (विनयः) – Humility or modesty: a disposition of respectfulness and absence of pride, essential for spiritual learning and service. Śaucam (शौचम्) – Cleanliness: both physical cleanliness and inner purity of mind and intention. Apratikarma (अप्रतिकर्म) – Non-retaliation or non-reactiveness: abstaining from vengeful or reactive conduct, even in the face of harm; upholding nonviolence in thought and deed. Samyag-darśanam (सम्यग्दर्शनम्) – Right vision or correct philosophical understanding: maintaining a truthful and insightful worldview aligned with dharma and the ultimate truth.
ध्यानं समाधिर्मनसेन्द्रियाणां ससागरैर्भैक्ष्यमथोपगम्य ।
मौनं पवित्रोपचितैर्विमुक्तिः परिव्रजो धर्ममिमं वदन्ति ।।
dhyānaṃ samādhirmanasendriyāṇāṃ sasāgarairbhaikṣyamathopagamya |
maunaṃ pavitropacitairvimuktiḥ parivrajo dharmamimaṃ vadanti || 188 ||
Meditation (dhyāna), concentration (samādhi) of the mind and senses, the practice of begging alms even from those with oceans of wealth, silence (mauna), purity accumulated through austere practices, and liberation (vimuktiḥ)—these are the duties (dharma) of the renunciant (parivrajaka) as declared.
सर्वे ते श्रेयसे प्रोक्ता आश्रमा ब्रह्मणा स्वयम् ।
सत्यार्जवं तपः क्षान्तिर्योगेज्या दमपूर्विका । । १८९ ॥
sarve te śreyase proktā āśramā brahmaṇā svayam |
satyārjavaṃ tapaḥ kṣāntiryogejyā damapūrvikā | | 189 ||
All those āśramas (stages of life) have been prescribed by Brahmā himself for the sake of ultimate good (śreyas), characterized by truthfulness (satya), straightforwardness (ārjava), austerity (tapas), forbearance (kṣānti), concentration or union (yoga), sacrificial worship (ijyā), all preceded by self-restraint (dama).
वेदाः सांगाश्च यज्ञाश्च व्रतानि नियमाश्च ये ।
न सिध्यन्ति प्रदुष्टस्य भावदोष उपागते।। १९० ।।
vedāḥ sāṃgāśca yajñāśca vratāni niyamāśca ye |
na sidhyanti praduṣṭasya bhāvadoṣa upāgate|| 190 ||
The Vedas along with their ancillary limbs (śāṅga), the sacrifices (yajñas), the vows (vratas), and the disciplines (niyamas)—none of these attain fulfillment in the case of a corrupted person, when there is impurity of intent or defect in inner disposition (bhāva-doṣa).
This verse underscores the supremacy of inner purity in the execution of religious duties. It teaches that:
Vedas: Sacred knowledge revealed to the ṛṣis and preserved through meticulous recitation and understanding. Ṣaḍ-aṅga (six auxiliaries): The six limbs or disciplines of the Vedas (śikṣā – phonetics, kalpa – ritual, vyākaraṇa – grammar, nirukta – etymology, chandas – meter, and jyotiṣa – astronomy). Yajñas (sacrifices): Ritual offerings prescribed for various purposes—cosmic harmony, spiritual merit, and purification. Vratas & Niyamas: Vows and observances that govern both external behavior and internal discipline.
However, if one is spiritually defiled, even the most precise ritual or profound learning is rendered ineffective. The key term here is bhāva-doṣa – "defect of intention or feeling." This implies that:
A person whose mind is impure, or whose intention is insincere, fails to achieve the spiritual fruits of these practices. Ritual purity is insufficient without purity of heart, a recurring theme in both Vedantic and Bhakti literature.
Even when a renunciant or householder engages in correct actions outwardly, if the heart is not aligned with truth and purity, those actions are spiritually fruitless.
This also aligns with teachings found in the Bhagavad Gītā, Manusmṛti, and Upaniṣads, where intention (bhāva) plays a vital role in the efficacy of karma (action).
बहि: कर्माणि सर्वाणि प्रसिध्यन्ति कदाचन ।
अन्तर्भावप्रदुष्टस्य कुर्वतोऽपि पराक्रमान् ।। १९१।।
bahi: karmāṇi sarvāṇi prasidhyanti kadācana |
antarbhāvapraduṣṭasya kurvato’pi parākramān || 191||
The external actions of one whose inner disposition is tainted never succeed, even if such a person undertakes great efforts or displays of valor.
Bahiḥ karmāṇi (external deeds), no matter how impressive—whether ritual, social, or heroic (parākramān)—fail to bring lasting success or spiritual merit, if the inner state (antar-bhāva) is praduṣṭaḥ, i.e., corrupt, impure, or motivated by ego, greed, anger, or deceit.
In other words, even a person who appears noble or bold externally, if internally corrupt, will not truly prosper or be recognized by dharma or divinity.
Vedas, rituals, and vows do not fructify for those with inner defilement. It expands to all actions—ritual, personal, or even heroic deeds—underscoring the primacy of sincerity and purity of heart.
It’s a direct spiritual critique of hypocrisy and externally pious behavior that masks internal corruption—a motif echoed in the Bhagavad Gītā (3.6) and Upaniṣads, where restraint is only meaningful if it arises from the inside out.
सर्वस्वमपि यो दद्यात्कलुषेणन्तरात्मना ।
न तेन धर्मभाक्स स्याद्भाव एवात्र कारणम् ॥। १९२ ।।
sarvasvamapi yo dadyātkaluṣeṇantarātmanā |
na tena dharmabhāksa syādbhāva evātra kāraṇam ||| 192 ||
Even if one gives away all that one possesses, if his inner self is impure, he does not become a partaker of dharma. For here, it is the inner disposition (bhāva) that is the true cause.
A person might give away sarvasvam – “everything he owns,” suggesting total material renunciation or donation. Yet, if this is done with a kaluṣa antar-ātmā – “a polluted or defiled inner self,” motivated by pride, ego, expectation, or hypocrisy, then such a person is not a dharmabhāk – “recipient or sharer in righteousness.”
Bhāva eva atra kāraṇam – “It is truly the intention that is the cause or basis” – emphasizes that in all acts of virtue, intention (bhāva) is paramount, not the magnitude of the act.
Ritual without pure intent is spiritually fruitless.
एवं देवाः सपितर ऋषयो मनवस्तथा ।
तेषां स्थानममुष्पिस्तु संस्थितानां प्रचक्षते ॥ १९३॥
evaṃ devāḥ sapitara ṛṣayo manavastathā |
teṣāṃ sthānamamuṣpistu saṃsthitānāṃ pracakṣate || 193||
Thus, the Devas along with the Pitṛs (manes), the Ṛṣis (sages), and the Manus proclaim the status (or abode) of those who have reached a state of spiritual stability.
Only those firmly established in righteous conduct and inner purity are granted their rightful place by divine authority.
No amount of external ritual or charity can compensate for internal corruption, divine recognition comes only to the inwardly steadfast.
अष्टाशीतिसहस्राणि ऋषीणामूर्ध्वरेतसाम् ।
स्मृतं तु तेषां तत्स्थानं तदेव गुरुवासिनाम् ॥ १९४ ॥
सप्तर्षीणां तु यत्स्थानं स्मृतं तद्वै दिवौकसाम् ।
प्राजापत्यं गृहस्थानां न्यासिनां ब्रह्मणः क्षयम् ॥१९५॥
aṣṭāśītisahasrāṇi ṛṣīṇāmūrdhvaretasām |
smṛtaṃ tu teṣāṃ tatsthānaṃ tadeva guruvāsinām || 194 ||
saptarṣīṇāṃ tu yatsthānaṃ smṛtaṃ tadvai divaukasām |
prājāpatyaṃ gṛhasthānāṃ nyāsināṃ brahmaṇaḥ kṣayam ||195||
There are eighty-eight thousand sages who are ūrdhvaretas—those practicing celibacy and preserving their vital essence. The abode remembered for them is the same realm assigned to guruvāsins—those who dwell with and serve their spiritual teacher.
The realm associated with the Seven Ṛṣis (Saptarṣis) is considered the domain of the celestial deities (divaukasaḥ).
The Prajāpati realm is prescribed for householders (gṛhasthas).
And the abode of Brahmā is the final destination of renunciants (nyāsins) who have relinquished all worldly attachments.
योगिनाममृतं स्थानं नानाधीनां न विद्यते ।
स्थानान्याश्रमिणां तानि ये स्वधर्मे व्यवस्थिताः ॥ १९६
yogināmamṛtaṃ sthānaṃ nānādhīnāṃ na vidyate |
sthānānyāśramiṇāṃ tāni ye svadharme vyavasthitāḥ || 196
The abode of the Yogins is a realm of immortality (amṛtaṁ sthānaṁ). But for those whose minds are scattered and unstable, such a status does not exist. The realms (or statuses) belong to the āśramīs—those who remain firmly rooted in their own ordained duties (svadharma).
Yogins—those who are perfected in mental discipline, self-realization, and meditative absorption—achieve an amṛta-sthāna, an immortal and undying realm beyond the transitory heavens.
In contrast, those of “nānādhīnāḥ”—individuals with fragmented attention, divided loyalty, or conflicted minds—are excluded from such attainments. The verse subtly equates inner unity with cosmic elevation.
The āśramas (stages of life: student, householder, forest-dweller, and renunciant) each have their own designated realms, but these are accessed only by those who abide in their own svadharma—meaning a life faithfully aligned with the duties appropriate to one’s station and nature.
Spiritual liberation is rooted in fidelity to dharma, not merely in mystical aspirations. Amṛta-sthāna (immortal realm) is reserved for the fully integrated—those whose mind, body, and actions are harmonized. Distraction, doubt, or undisciplined practice bars one from higher realms, despite external observances.
This reaffirms the core Purāṇic message: one need not renounce society to attain mokṣa—but one must be fully present and sincere in one’s dharma.
चत्वार एते पन्थानो देवयाना विनिर्मिताः ।
ब्रह्मणा लोकतन्त्रेण आद्ये मन्वन्तरे भुवि । । १९७ ।।
catvāra ete panthāno devayānā vinirmitāḥ |
brahmaṇā lokatantreṇa ādye manvantare bhuvi ||197 ||
These four paths (catvāraḥ panthānaḥ), associated with Devayāna (the divine path), have been established by Brahmā, in accordance with the cosmic order (lokatantra), at the very beginning—during the first Manvantara upon the earth.
The first Manvantara refers to the reign of Svāyambhuva Manu, under whom the primary social and spiritual frameworks (like varṇa and āśrama) were established. Each Manvantara spans 71 Mahāyugas (each Mahāyuga being 4.32 million human years). There are 14 Manvantaras in one day of Brahmā.
The mention of “devayānaḥ” in plural indicates that all āśrama-dharmas, if practiced correctly, lead to divine realization. Each āśramī has a designated realm, so long as one lives faithfully in accordance with dharma.
पन्थानो देवयानाय तेषां द्वारं रविः स्मृतः ।
तथैव पितृयानानां चन्द्रमा द्वारमुच्यते ॥ १९८ ॥
panthāno devayānāya teṣāṃ dvāraṃ raviḥ smṛtaḥ |
tathaiva pitṛyānānāṃ candramā dvāramucyate || 198 ||
The paths (panthānaḥ) leading to the Devayāna (the path of the gods) have the Sun (Ravi) as their gate. Likewise, for the Pitṛyāna (the path of the ancestors), the Moon (Candra) is said to be the gateway.
Devayāna (Path of the Gods – Solar Path) liberation, permanence, transcendence:
This is the bright path (arcir-mārga) taken by renunciants, yogis, or those who practice meditation and knowledge (jñāna-mārga). It leads to Brahmaloka or liberation (mokṣa), bypassing rebirth. The Sun (Ravi) is considered the gatekeeper of this celestial route.
Pitṛyāna (Path of the Ancestors – Lunar Path) merit, enjoyment, cyclic return:
This is the smoke-laden or dark path (dhūma-mārga), followed by those who perform rituals, sacrifices, and fulfill their duties in the karma-kāṇḍa (ritual domain). It leads to Pitṛloka, where one enjoys the fruits of good karma, but returns to rebirth after exhaustion of merit. The Moon (Candra) serves as the portal for this route.
The path of knowledge and renunciation leads to the sunlit gate of immortality, while the path of ritual and duty, though noble, enters the lunar gate of temporary merit.
एवं वर्णाश्रमाणां वै प्रविभागे कृते तदा ।
यदाऽस्य न व्यवर्तन्त प्रजा वर्णाश्रमात्मिकाः ॥ १९९ ॥
evaṃ varṇāśramāṇāṃ vai pravibhāge kṛte tadā |
yadā’sya na vyavartanta prajā varṇāśramātmikāḥ || 199 ||
Thus, when the division of varṇas (social classes) and āśramas (stages of life) had been properly established, the living beings (prajāḥ), who embodied the essence of these varṇa–āśrama principles, did not deviate from their prescribed duties.
ततोऽन्या मानसी: सोऽथत्रेतामध्येऽसृजत्प्रजाः ।
आत्मनः स्वशरीराच्च तुल्याश्चैवात्मना तु वै ॥ २००॥
tato’nyā mānasī: so’thatretāmadhye’sṛjatprajāḥ |
ātmanaḥ svaśarīrācca tulyāścaivātmanā tu vai || 200||
Then, in the middle of the Tretā Yuga, he (i.e., Brahmā or the cosmic progenitor) created other beings born of the mind (mānasīḥ prajāḥ). These progenies issued forth from his own body, and they were of a nature similar to his own self.
तस्मिंस्त्रेतायुगे त्वाद्ये मध्यं प्राप्ते क्रमेण तु ।
ततोऽन्या मानसीस्तत्र प्रजाः स्रष्टुं प्रचक्रमे || २०१ |
tasmiṃstretāyuge tvādye madhyaṃ prāpte krameṇa tu |
tato’nyā mānasīstatra prajāḥ sraṣṭuṃ pracakrame || 201 |
Then, in the first Treta Yuga, when it had gradually reached its midpoint, he (the creator) once again began to create other beings—mind-born progenies (mānasīḥ prajāḥ).
ततः सत्त्वरजोद्रिक्ताः प्रजाः सोऽथासृजत्प्रभुः ।
धर्मार्थकाममोक्षणां वार्तायाश्चैव साधिकाः ॥ २०२ ॥
tataḥ sattvarajodriktāḥ prajāḥ so’thāsṛjatprabhuḥ |
dharmārthakāmamokṣaṇāṃ vārtāyāścaiva sādhikāḥ || 202 ||
Then the Lord (Prabhuḥ) created progenies endowed with predominance of Sattva and Rajas. These beings were capable of pursuing the four Puruṣārthas—Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), Kāma (desire), and Mokṣa (liberation)—as well as proficient in Vārtā, i.e., agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade.
देवाश्च पितरश्चैव ऋषयो मनवस्तथा ।
युगानुरूपा धर्मेण यैरिमा विचिताः प्रजाः ॥ २०३ ॥
devāśca pitaraścaiva ṛṣayo manavastathā |
yugānurūpā dharmeṇa yairimā vicitāḥ prajāḥ || 203 ||
The Devas (gods), Pitṛs (manes/ancestors), Ṛṣis (sages), and the Manus (progenitor kings)—each in accordance with the dharma appropriate to their respective yuga—brought forth these diverse beings (prajās).
The Devas, divine forces of nature and cosmic order; The Pitṛs, ancestral spirits responsible for guiding lineage and family dharma; The Ṛṣis, sages who revealed Vedic knowledge and set spiritual models; The Manus, law-givers and rulers of each Manvantara (cosmic era);
Each participated in the fashioning of human society based on the needs, capacities, and spiritual potentials unique to each Yuga.
Importantly, the phrase "yugānurūpa dharmeṇa" emphasizes that Dharma is not static; it is tailored to the nature of each age (Satya, Tretā, Dvāpara, Kali). Accordingly, the types of beings and their qualities also evolve.
This affirms a core Purāṇic idea: that creation is not a singular event, but an ongoing and cyclical manifestation through various agents, each carrying out divine will suited to cosmic time.
उपस्थिते तदा तस्मिन्प्रजाधर्मे स्वयंभुवः ।
अभिदध्यौ प्रजाः सर्वा नानारूपास्तु मानसीः ॥ २०४॥
upasthite tadā tasminprajādharme svayaṃbhuvaḥ |
abhidadhyau prajāḥ sarvā nānārūpāstu mānasīḥ || 204||
Then, when the duty of creating progeny (prajā-dharma) became manifest, Svayaṁbhu (the Self-born) contemplated all the mind-born (mānasīḥ) progenies, endowed with diverse forms.
When the duty to populate and diversify creation (prajā-dharma) arose, Svayaṁbhu (a title of Brahmā, the Self-existent or Self-born Creator) directed his willful contemplation toward generating manifold beings through his mind.
The prajā-dharma refers to the sacred obligation or dharma of bringing forth beings in the universe. The beings are described as nānā-rūpāḥ—possessing diverse forms, symbolizing the plurality of creation: various species, temperaments, capacities, and destinies. These are mānasīḥ prajāḥ, mind-born entities, generated not by physical procreation but through pure thought or will—a motif that underscores the divine and subtle origin of early beings.
This emphasizes the mental potency of Brahmā and the idea that conscious intention alone can give rise to form, a core metaphysical principle in Vedic cosmology.
पूर्वोक्ता या मया तुभ्यं जनलोकं समाश्रिताः ।
कल्पेऽतीते तु ते ह्यासन्देवाद्यास्तु प्रजा इह ॥ २०५ ॥
pūrvoktā yā mayā tubhyaṃ janalokaṃ samāśritāḥ |
kalpe’tīte tu te hyāsandevādyāstu prajā iha || 205 ||
Those beings I previously described to you as residing in Janaloka, in the former Kalpa, have now become the Devas and other classes of beings (prajāḥ) in this present cycle of creation.
The Janaloka (जनलोक) is a higher spiritual realm where purified or divine beings reside during cosmic dissolution (pralaya). When a Kalpa (a cosmic day of Brahmā, spanning billions of years) ends and a new one begins, these beings reincarnate or reappear in various roles and forms on Earth and in the heavens. The term devādyāḥ prajāḥ includes not just Devas (gods) but other categories of sentient beings, such as sages, humans, and celestial spirits.
This thus connects the continuity of souls across cosmic epochs, emphasizing that the current manifest world includes reborn or re-manifested entities from the past Kalpa—those who previously had attained higher states (like Janaloka) but are now again part of sṛṣṭi (creation).
ध्यायतस्तस्य ताः सर्वाः संभूत्यर्थमुपस्थिताः ।
मन्वन्तरक्रमेणेह कनिष्ठे प्रथमे मताः ॥ २०६ ॥
dhyāyatastasya tāḥ sarvāḥ saṃbhūtyarthamupasthitāḥ |
manvantarakrameṇeha kaniṣṭhe prathame matāḥ || 206 ||
As he (the Self-born or Brahmā) meditated upon them, all those (beings) manifested themselves for the purpose of creation. According to the order of the Manvantaras, they were regarded as the youngest and belonging to the first (Manvantara) here.
ख्यात्यानुवन्धैस्तैस्तैस्तु सर्वार्थैरिह भाविताः ।
कुशलाकुशलप्रायैः कर्मभिस्तैः सदा प्रजाः ॥२०७॥
khyātyānuvandhaistaistaistu sarvārthairiha bhāvitāḥ |
kuśalākuśalaprāyaiḥ karmabhistaiḥ sadā prajāḥ ||207||
Endowed with fame and succession, and shaped by various goals (sarvārthāḥ), the beings (prajās) were perpetually influenced by actions (karma) that were predominantly either virtuous or unvirtuous.
Created beings (prajās) in the current Kalpa are influenced and shaped by:
"Khyāti-anuvandhaiḥ" – through continuity of fame or renown, i.e., lineage, reputation, and inherited status. This suggests a karmic or dharmic continuity, where past renown influences present conditions. "Tais-taiḥ sarvārthaiḥ bhāvitāḥ" – they are motivated and influenced by various ends or goals, meaning they are shaped by pursuits such as dharma, artha, kāma, and mokṣa, depending on their karmic orientation. "Kuśala-akuśala-prāyaiḥ karmabhiḥ" – actions (karma) that are predominantly virtuous (kuśala) or non-virtuous (akuśala). Their moral character influences their conditions. "Sadā prajāḥ" – these beings are always subject to these karmic consequences.
In essence, this verse emphasizes the role of karma and intent—good or bad—in shaping the destiny and state of all living beings through time. Even when reborn or recreated, their previous merits or demerits follow them, tying into the broader cyclical framework of saṁsāra and rebirth.
तत्कर्मफलशेषेण उपष्टब्धा प्रजज्ञिरे ।
देवासुरपितृत्वैश्च पशुपक्षिसरीसृपैः ॥ २०८ ॥
वृक्षनारकिकीटत्वैस्तैस्तैर्भावैरुपस्थिताः ।
आधीनार्थं प्रजानां च आत्मनो वै विनिर्ममे ॥ २०९ ॥
tatkarmaphalaśeṣeṇa upaṣṭabdhā prajajñire |
devāsurapitṛtvaiśca paśupakṣisarīsṛpaiḥ || 208 ||
vṛkṣanārakikīṭatvaistaistairbhāvairupasthitāḥ |
ādhīnārthaṃ prajānāṃ ca ātmano vai vinirmame || 209 ||
By the remaining fruits of their past actions (karma-phala-śeṣa), various beings took birth — as gods (devas), demons (asuras), ancestors (pitṛs), as well as animals, birds, and reptiles.
They appeared in various forms — as trees, hell-beings (nārakikās), and insects — according to their corresponding karmic tendencies (bhāvas). And to serve or support the needs of living beings (prajās), the Creator fashioned them from his own Self.
These two verses together describe the diverse forms of rebirth arising from residual karma, revealing a detailed vision of cosmic justice and ecological interdependence:
"Tat-karma-phala-śeṣeṇa" – The residual or remaining effects of past deeds (karma) from previous lives still exert influence and shape the form of one’s next birth.
Beings are born as:
Devas – divine beings with merit, Asuras – titanic beings or anti-gods due to ego or ambition, Pitṛs – ancestral spirits, Paśu, Pakṣi, Sarīsṛpa – animals, birds, and reptiles respectively, Vṛkṣa, Nārakī, Kīṭa – trees (plant-life), hell-beings, and insects.
These births are determined by specific internal tendencies or “bhāvas”, resulting from intentional moral or immoral action.
"Ādhīnārthaṁ prajānām" – The Creator made them for subservience or functional roles within the greater cosmic system — for example:
Animals serve humans, Trees provide shelter, food, or support ecosystems, Even beings in lower realms form part of the karmic and spiritual cycle.
"Ātmano vai vinirmame" – Brahmā (or the Supreme) created them from his own essence, signifying the interconnectedness of all beings — divine, mundane, or infernal — in a unified divine origin.
इति श्रीमहापुराणे वायुप्रोक्ते चतुराश्रमविभागकथनं नामाष्टमोऽध्यायः ॥८॥
Iti Śrī-Mahāpurāṇe Vāyu-Prokte Caturāśrama-Vibhāga-Kathanaṁ Nāma Aṣṭamo'dhyāyaḥ ||8||
Thus ends the eighth chapter titled 'The Discourse on the Division of the Four Āśramas' in the glorious Mahāpurāṇa as spoken by Vāyu.
Chapter 8 of the Vāyu Purāṇa continues the great narrative cycle after the dissolution of the previous creation. Following the cosmic night (a thousand Yugas in duration), the Supreme Being reappears as Brahmā to initiate a new cycle of creation. Assuming the form of wind (Vāyu), he stirs the primal waters where all matter rests in a state of equilibrium and darkness. Perceiving that the Earth has submerged, he takes the remembered form of a boar (Varāha), descends into the cosmic waters, and lifts the Earth to re-establish it in its proper cosmic position.
Having retrieved the Earth, Brahmā reshapes the continents, rivers, oceans, and mountains, which had previously been dissolved by the fires of cosmic destruction (saṁvartaka-agni). Mountains are reborn wherever the Earth became fixed, earning names such as acalas (immovables) and parvatas (due to their ridged structures). The seven continents and oceans are reconfigured in concentric circles, each continent subdivided into seven varṣas or regions, forming the geographical structure of the world.
Next, Brahmā creates time itself: instating divisions such as lavas, kāṣṭhās, muhūrtas, days, months, seasons, years, and Yugas. The four Yugas—Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali—each reflect declining moral and spiritual qualities, governed by their dominant guṇas: sattva, rajas, and tamas. Brahmā also establishes the guardians of the elements and all celestial realms, reassigning their spiritual overseers (sthāninas).
The Kṛta Yuga is a golden age of spontaneous fulfillment. Beings are born directly through mental contemplation, have pure minds, equal lifespan, and perfect health. They are fed by wish-fulfilling trees (kalpavṛkṣas), and live without homes, in harmony with the environment. There is no concept of caste or social division. Dharma arises naturally, without enforcement.
However, as time progresses into Tretā Yuga, a decline begins. Spontaneous perfection (siddhi) fades and is replaced by ritual effort. Menstruation becomes regular, and sexual reproduction replaces mental generation. Agriculture arises as wish-granting trees vanish. Villages, cities, and measurement systems develop, leading to territorial divisions and social hierarchy.
At this point, Brahmā formally establishes varṇa (social classes)—Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas, and Śūdras—based on their dominant qualities and karma. The righteous are assigned roles: Brāhmaṇas teach and perform sacrifice, Kṣatriyas rule and protect, Vaiśyas engage in trade and agriculture, and Śūdras serve. Those who fail to uphold their duties are reincarnated in lower forms based on karmic residue.
Simultaneously, Brahmā institutes the four āśramas (stages of life):
Each āśrama comes with its own yamas (ethical restraints) and niyamas (observances). Ten virtues—such as truth, compassion, and self-restraint—define ideal conduct. The duties of each stage aim at balancing personal evolution with social harmony, ultimately leading to liberation.
Brahmā assigns spiritual destinations (lokas) to those faithful to their duties: Brāhmaṇas attain the realm of Prajāpati, Kṣatriyas reach Indra's realm, Vaiśyas go to the realm of the Maruts, Śūdras attain the Gāndharva world, and yogins reach the amṛta-sthāna, the immortal realm.
The chapter concludes by connecting the present creation with beings from previous kalpas—especially those who had ascended to Janaloka but return to participate in this new cycle. It emphasizes the role of karma, innate disposition, and cosmic order in shaping one’s birth, caste, duty, and destiny across time.
Commentary
The "night of Brahmā" is a symbolic duration in Hindu cosmology equivalent to 1,000 Mahāyugas (~4.32 billion years). During this night, creation is dissolved, and all beings rest in unmanifest Prakṛti. At the end of the night, the Supreme Being, usually identified with Nārāyaṇa or Viṣṇu, assumes the role of Brahmā to reinitiate creation — thus starting a new Kalpa, here specifically, the Vārāha Kalpa. The cyclical nature of time and creation is emphasized: after dissolution comes rebirth.