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Vāmana Purāṇa
Pūrva-bhāgaChapter 11
The seven ring-shaped continents of Bhumandala encircling Mount Meru, each separated by an ocean, seen from above

Universal Dharma and the Seven Continents

Synopsis

The eleventh chapter of the Vāmana Purāṇa begins with the story of the righteous Rākṣasa king Sukeśi, who seeks to understand the nature of the highest good. In response, the sages present a comprehensive exposition of dharma, explaining the characteristic duties and dispositions of gods, Daityas, Siddhas, Gandharvas, Vidyādharas, humans, and other classes of beings.

The chapter then shifts from ethics to cosmology, describing the sacred geography of the universe. It presents the seven concentric dvīpas (continents), the oceans that surround them, Mount Meru at the cosmic center, and the Ocean of Milk where Viṣṇu reclines upon Śeṣa, illustrating the Purāṇic vision of an ordered and divinely structured cosmos.

The concluding section introduces the terrifying realms of hell (naraka), explaining their number, dimensions, and principal characteristics. Together, these teachings unite moral philosophy, cosmic geography, and eschatology into a single theological framework, demonstrating how conduct, the structure of the universe, and the destiny of living beings are inseparably connected.

Chapter 11 Universal Dharma and the Seven Continents

1-2

नारद उवाच
यदेतद् भवता प्रोक्तं सुकेशिनगरोऽम्बरात् ।
पातितो भुवि सूर्येण तत्कदा कुत्र कुत्र च ॥ १ ॥
सुकेशीति च कश्चासौ केन दत्तं पुरं चास्य ।
किमर्थं पातितो भूम्याम् आकाशाद् भास्करेण हि ॥ २ ॥

nārada uvāca
yad etad bhavatā proktaṃ sukeśi-nagaro ’mbarāt |
pātito bhuvi sūryeṇa tat kadā kutra kutra ca || 1 ||
sukeśīti ca kaś cāsau kena dattaṃ puraṃ cāsya |
kimarthaṃ pātito bhūmyām ākāśād bhāskareṇa hi || 2 ||

Nārada said: You have stated that Sukeśi’s city was cast down from the sky onto the earth by the Sun. When did this happen, and where exactly?

 

And who was this person called Sukeśi? By whom was his city bestowed upon him? For what reason, indeed, was it cast down from the sky onto the earth by Bhāskara?

3-5

पुलस्त्य उवाच
शृणुष्वावहितो भूत्वा कथामेतां पुरातनीम् ।
यथोक्तवान् स्वयंभूर्मां कथ्यमानां मयाऽनघ ॥ ३ ॥
आसीन्निशाचरपतिर्विद्युत्केशीति विश्रुतः ।
तस्य पुत्रो गुणज्येष्ठः सुकेशिरभवत्ततः ॥ ४ ॥
तस्य तुष्टस्तथेशानः पुरमाकाशचारिणम् ।
प्रादादजेयत्वमपि शत्रुभिश्चाप्यवध्यताम् ॥ ५ ॥

pulastya uvāca
śṛṇuṣvāvahito bhūtvā kathām etāṃ purātanīm |
yathoktavān svayambhūr māṃ kathyamānāṃ mayā ’nagha || 3 ||
āsīn niśācarapatir vidyutkeśīti viśrutaḥ |
tasya putro guṇajyeṣṭhaḥ sukeśir abhavat tataḥ || 4 ||
tasya tuṣṭas tatheśānaḥ puram ākāśacāriṇam |
prādād ajeyatvam api śatrubhiś cāpy avadhyatām || 5 ||

Pulastya said: Listen attentively to this ancient account, O sinless one, just as Svayambhū himself related it to me and as I now narrate it.

 

There once lived a renowned lord of the night-roaming Rākṣasas named Vidyutkeśin. Thereafter, he had a son named Sukeśi, who was pre-eminent in virtues.

 

Īśāna, being pleased with him, bestowed upon him a city capable of traveling through the sky, as well as invincibility and immunity from being slain by enemies.”

 

Commentary
  • Svayambhū means Brahmā, “the Self-born.”
  • Īśāna is usually a form of Śiva/Rudra. Especially associated with Śiva’s supreme, subtle, ruling aspect.
  • In Vāstu and ritual geography, Īśāna is the guardian or deity of the northeast direction. That corner is considered especially sacred and connected with Śiva.

 

In Śaiva theology, Īśāna is one of the pañcabrahman forms/faces of Śiva:

  • Sadyojāta
  • Vāmadeva
  • Aghora
  • Tatpuruṣa
  • Īśāna

 

Īśāna is often the upward-facing or transcendent face, associated with pure consciousness, knowledge, and liberation.

6-8

स चापि शङ्करात् प्राप्य वरं गगनगं पुरम् ।
रेमे निशाचरैः सार्धं सदा धर्मपथि स्थितः ॥ ६ ॥
स कदाचिद् गतोऽरण्यं मागधं राक्षसेश्वरः ।
तत्राश्रमांस्तु ददृशे ऋषीणां भावितात्मनाम् ॥ ७ ॥
महर्षीन् स तदा दृष्ट्वा प्रणिपत्याभिवाद्य च ।
प्रत्युवाच ऋषीन् सर्वान् कृतासनपरिग्रहः ॥ ८ ॥

sa cāpi śaṅkarāt prāpya varaṃ gaganagaṃ puram |
reme niśācaraiḥ sārdhaṃ sadā dharmapathi sthitaḥ || 6 ||
sa kadācid gato ’raṇyaṃ māgadhaṃ rākṣaseśvaraḥ |
tatrāśramāṃs tu dadṛśe ṛṣīṇāṃ bhāvitātmanām || 7 ||
maharṣīn sa tadā dṛṣṭvā praṇipatyābhivādya ca |
pratyuvāca ṛṣīn sarvān kṛtāsanaparigrahaḥ || 8 ||

Having received from Śaṅkara, as a boon, a city that traveled through the sky, Sukeśi lived joyfully together with the night-roaming Rākṣasas, while always remaining established upon the path of righteousness.

 

Once, the lord of the Rākṣasas went to the Māgadha forest. There he beheld the hermitages of sages whose inner selves had been spiritually cultivated.

 

When he saw the great seers, he bowed before them and respectfully saluted them. Then, having accepted a seat, he addressed all the sages.

 

Commentary
  • Śaṅkara is one of the most common names of Śiva.
  • Śaṅkara means “the bringer of welfare,” “the maker of auspiciousness,” “the beneficent one.”
  • Śaṅkara = Śiva, especially when he is viewed not as a terrifying destroyer, but as a benevolent, protective, grace-giving deity.
9-10

सुकेशिरुवाच
प्रष्टुमिच्छामि भवतः संशयोऽयं हृदि स्थितः ।
कथयन्तु भवन्तो मे न चैवाज्ञापयाम्यहम् ॥ ९ ॥
किं स्वित् श्रेयः परे लोके किमु चेह द्विजोत्तमाः ।
केन पूज्यस्तथा सत्सु केनासौ सुखमेधते ॥ १० ॥

sukeśir uvāca
praṣṭum icchāmi bhavataḥ saṃśayo ’yaṃ hṛdi sthitaḥ |
kathayantu bhavanto me na caivājñāpayāmy aham || 9 ||
kiṃ svit śreyaḥ pare loke kim u ceha dvijottamāḥ |
kena pūjyas tathā satsu kenāsau sukham edhate || 10 ||

Sukeśi said: I wish to ask you about a doubt that remains in my heart. May your venerable selves explain it to me; I am certainly not presuming to command you.

 

What, O foremost of the twice-born, leads to the highest good in the world beyond, and what leads to it here in this world? By what does a person become worthy of honor among the virtuous, and through what does he prosper in happiness?

11-13

पुलस्त्य उवाच
इत्थं सुकेशिवचनं निशम्य परमर्षयः ।
प्रोचुर्विमृश्य श्रेयोऽर्थमिह लोके परत्र च ॥ ११ ॥
ऋषय ऊचुः
श्रूयतां कथयिष्यामस्तव राक्षसपुङ्गव ।
यद्धि श्रेयो भवेद् वीर इह चामुत्र चाव्ययम् ॥ १२ ॥
श्रेयो धर्मः परे लोके इह च क्षणदाचर ।
तस्मिन् समाश्रितः सत्सु पूज्यस्तेन सुखी भवेत् ॥ १३ ॥

pulastya uvāca
itthaṃ sukeśi-vacanaṃ niśamya paramarṣayaḥ |
procur vimṛśya śreyo ’rtham iha loke paratra ca || 11 ||
ṛṣaya ūcuḥ
śrūyatāṃ kathayiṣyāmas tava rākṣasa-puṅgava |
yad dhi śreyo bhaved vīra iha cāmutra cāvyayam || 12 ||
śreyo dharmaḥ pare loke iha ca kṣaṇadācara |
tasmin samāśritaḥ satsu pūjyas tena sukhī bhavet || 13 ||

Pulastya said: Having heard Sukeśi’s words, the supreme sages deliberated on the nature of the highest good in this world and in the world beyond, and then spoke.

 

The sages said: “Listen, O foremost of the Rākṣasas; we shall explain to you what constitutes the imperishable highest good, O hero, both here and in the world beyond.

 

Dharma is the highest good in the other world and here as well, O night-roamer. One who takes firm refuge in it becomes honored among the virtuous and, through it, attains happiness.”

14-17

सुकेशिरुवाच
किंलक्षणो भवेद् धर्मः किमाचरणसत्क्रियः ।
यमाश्रित्य न सीदन्ति देवाद्यास्तु तदुच्यताम् ॥ १४ ॥
ऋषय ऊचुः
देवानां परमो धर्मः सदा यज्ञादिकाः क्रियाः ।
स्वाध्यायवेदवेत्तृत्वं विष्णुपूजारतिः स्मृता ॥ १५ ॥
दैत्यानां बाहुशालित्वं मात्सर्यं युद्धसत्क्रिया ।
वेदनं नीतिशास्त्राणां हरभक्तिरुदाहृता ॥ १६ ॥
सिद्धानामुदितो धर्मो योगयुक्तिरनुत्तमा ।
स्वाध्यायो ब्रह्मविज्ञानं भक्तिर्द्वाभ्यामपि स्थिरा ॥ १७ ॥

sukeśir uvāca
kiṃlakṣaṇo bhaved dharmaḥ kim-ācaraṇa-sat-kriyaḥ |
yam āśritya na sīdanti devādyās tu tad ucyatām || 14 ||
ṛṣaya ūcuḥ
devānāṃ paramo dharmaḥ sadā yajñādikāḥ kriyāḥ |
svādhyāya-veda-vettṛtvaṃ viṣṇu-pūjā-ratiḥ smṛtā || 15 ||
daityānāṃ bāhuśālitvaṃ mātsaryaṃ yuddha-sat-kriyā |
vedanaṃ nītiśāstrāṇāṃ hara-bhaktir udāhṛtā || 16 ||
siddhānām udito dharmo yoga-yuktir anuttamā |
svādhyāyo brahma-vijñānaṃ bhaktir dvābhyām api sthirā || 17 ||

Sukeśi said: What are the defining characteristics of dharma, and what conduct and proper practices constitute it? Please describe that dharma by which the gods and other orders of beings do not decline from their condition.

 

The sages said: The highest dharma of the gods consists in the constant performance of rites beginning with sacrifice, sacred recitation and study, mastery of the Veda, and delight in the worship of Viṣṇu.

 

For the Daityas, it consists in strength of arm, rivalry, proper conduct in warfare, knowledge of the treatises on polity, and devotion to Hara.

 

For the Siddhas, the unsurpassed discipline of yoga is declared to be dharma, together with sacred recitation, realized knowledge of Brahman, and unwavering devotion to both deities.

 

Commentary

The passage uses dharma in a broader sense than a single universal moral code. It describes the qualities and practices that sustain each class of being in its characteristic nature and cosmic role. This explains why martial rivalry can be called the dharma of the Daityas, while sacrifice and Vedic knowledge characterize the gods.

 

Verse 17 is especially revealing. The Siddhas are not assigned exclusively to either a Vaiṣṇava or a Śaiva identity. Their dharma combines Brahman knowledge and yoga with firm devotion to both Viṣṇu and Hara, presenting the two forms of devotion as compatible within a perfected spiritual life.

 

Daitya = descendant of Diti They are called Daityas because they are born from Diti, one of the wives of the sage Kaśyapa.

 

Their close relatives are:

  • Dānavas — descendants of Danu
  • Ādityas — descendants of Aditi, usually the gods/devas
  • Daityas — descendants of Diti, often rivals of the gods

 

How are Daityas different from Dānavas?

  • The Daityas are often portrayed as royal, warlike opponents of the gods.
  • The Dānavas are often associated with great power, māyā, sorcery, architecture, and technical skill.

 

Famous Daityas include:

  • Hiraṇyakaśipu — father of Prahlāda, enemy of Viṣṇu/Narasiṃha
  • Hiraṇyākṣa — slain by Viṣṇu as Varāha
  • Prahlāda — a Daitya, but a great devotee of Viṣṇu
  • Bali / Mahābali — the righteous Daitya king, subdued by Vāmana

 

“Daitya” does not simply mean demon in a crude moral sense. Daityas are often anti-deva, proud, ambitious, and cosmic rivals of the gods, but some of them — especially Prahlāda and Bali — are portrayed as noble, pious, or deeply devoted. In the Purāṇic context, Daityas = the clan of Asuras descended from Diti, frequently opposed to the Devas but not always morally evil.

 

Dānava are another major class of Asuras, closely related to the Daityas.

  • Daityas = descendants of Diti
  • Dānavas = descendants of Danu
  • Ādityas / Devas = descendants of Aditi

 

Famous Dānavas include:

  • Maya Dānava — the great architect, engineer, and master of illusion
  • Vṛtra — sometimes classed among Dānavas or Asuras, enemy of Indra
  • Namuci — an Asura enemy of Indra
  • Śambara — a powerful Dānava/Asura associated with māyā and battle
18-21

उत्कृष्टोपासनं ज्ञेयं नृत्यवाद्येषु वेदिता ।
सरस्वत्यां स्थिरा भक्तिर्गान्धर्वो धर्म उच्यते ॥ १८ ॥
विद्याधरत्वमतुलं विज्ञानं पौरुषे मतिः ।
विद्याधराणां धर्मोऽयं भवान्यां भक्तिरेव च ॥ १९ ॥
गन्धर्वविद्यावेदित्वं भक्तिर्भानौ तथा स्थिरा ।
कौशल्यं सर्वशिल्पानां धर्मः किंपुरुषः स्मृतः ॥ २० ॥
ब्रह्मचर्यममानित्वं योगाभ्यासरतिर्दृढा ।
सर्वत्र कामचारित्वं धर्मोऽयं पैतृकः स्मृतः ॥ २१ ॥

utkṛṣṭopāsanaṃ jñeyaṃ nṛtyavādyeṣu veditā |
sarasvatyāṃ sthirā bhaktir gāndharvo dharma ucyate || 18 ||
vidyādharatvam atulaṃ vijñānaṃ pauruṣe matiḥ |
vidyādharāṇāṃ dharmo ’yaṃ bhavānyāṃ bhaktir eva ca || 19 ||
gandharvavidyā-veditvaṃ bhaktir bhānau tathā sthirā |
kauśalyaṃ sarvaśilpānāṃ dharmaḥ kiṃpuruṣaḥ smṛtaḥ || 20 ||
brahmacaryam amānitvaṃ yogābhyāsa-ratir dṛḍhā |
sarvatra kāmacāritvaṃ dharmo ’yaṃ paitṛkaḥ smṛtaḥ || 21 ||

Excellent service and worship, proficiency in dance and instrumental music, and steadfast devotion to Sarasvatī are said to constitute the dharma of the Gandharvas.

 

Unsurpassed mastery befitting a Vidyādhara, discriminative knowledge, and an inclination toward heroic enterprise—these constitute the dharma of the Vidyādharas, together with devotion to Bhavānī.

 

Knowledge of Gandharva lore, steadfast devotion to Bhānu, and skill in every art and craft are remembered as the dharma of the Kiṃpuruṣas.

 

Celibate discipline, freedom from self-importance, firm delight in the practice of yoga, and the power to move at will are remembered as the dharma of the Pitṛs.

 

Commentary

These verses continue to describe dharma as class-specific cosmic function, not merely as one uniform moral law. Each group is linked to a particular field of excellence and a corresponding deity: the Gandharvas with artistic performance and Sarasvatī; the Vidyādharas with extraordinary knowledge and Bhavānī; and the Kiṃpuruṣas with technical and musical arts under the Sun.

 

Verse 21 is especially easy to misread. The Pitṛs’ kāmacāritva does not suggest unrestricted sensuality; it describes freedom of movement in accordance with will. Together with brahmacarya, humility, and yoga, it portrays the ancestors as subtle beings whose discipline is joined with mobility across different realms.

 

Vidyādhara are a class of semi-divine or supernatural beings. Vidyādhara literally means “holder of knowledge” Vidyādharas are usually celestial or semi-celestial beings, often living in mountains or sky-realms. They are associated with magical powers, flight, occult sciences, refined arts, and supernatural skill. Some sources describe them as upadevas, lesser or semi-divine beings, and as attendants connected with Śiva and the Himalayan sphere. Vidyādharas are not Asuras but rather a class of enchanted, sky-moving, knowledge-bearing beings.

 

  • Gandharvas = celestial musicians;
  • Yakṣas = nature/wealth spirits, often linked with Kubera;
  • Siddhas = perfected yogic beings;
  • Vidyādharas = supernatural “knowledge-holders,” masters of magical sciences and aerial movement.

 

Kiṃpuruṣas are often human-like but not fully human. Some traditions describe them as lion-headed human beings; others associate them with Kinnaras, the half-human celestial musicians. They are often placed among semi-divine races such as Gandharvas, Yakṣas, Kinnaras, Siddhas, and Vidyādharas. The Kiṃpuruṣas are not primarily “demons” such as Daityas or Dānavas. They belong more to the category of liminal celestial/enchanted beings.

22-25

ब्रह्मचर्यं यताशित्वं जप्यं ज्ञानं च राक्षस ।
नियमाद्धर्मवेदित्वमार्षो धर्मः प्रचक्ष्यते ॥ २२ ॥
स्वाध्यायं ब्रह्मचर्यं च दानं यजनमेव च ।
अकार्पण्यमनायासं दयाहिंसा क्षमा दमः ॥ २३ ॥
जितेन्द्रियत्वं शौचं च माङ्गल्यं भक्तिरच्युते ।
शङ्करे भास्करे देव्यां धर्मोऽयं मानवः स्मृतः ॥ २४ ॥
धनाधिपत्यं भोगानि स्वाध्यायं शङ्करार्चनम् ।
अहङ्कारमशौण्डीर्यं धर्मोऽयं गुह्यकेष्विति ॥ २५ ॥

brahmacaryaṃ yatāśitvaṃ japyaṃ jñānaṃ ca rākṣasa |
niyamād dharma-veditvam ārṣo dharmaḥ pracakṣyate || 22 ||
svādhyāyaṃ brahmacaryaṃ ca dānaṃ yajanam eva ca |
akārpaṇyam anāyāsaṃ dayāhiṃsā kṣamā damaḥ || 23 ||
jitendriyatvaṃ śaucaṃ ca māṅgalyaṃ bhaktir acyute |
śaṅkare bhāskare devyāṃ dharmo ’yaṃ mānavaḥ smṛtaḥ || 24 ||
dhanādhipatyaṃ bhogāni svādhyāyaṃ śaṅkarārcanam |
ahaṅkāram aśauṇḍīryaṃ dharmo ’yaṃ guhyakeṣv iti || 25 ||

O Rākṣasa, celibate discipline, moderation in eating, mantra recitation, knowledge, and understanding of dharma acquired through disciplined observance are declared to constitute the dharma of the Ṛṣis.

 

Sacred study, celibate discipline, generosity, the performance of sacrifice, freedom from miserliness, absence of oppressive strain, compassion, nonviolence, forbearance, and self-restraint;

 

Mastery of the senses, purity, auspicious conduct, and devotion to Acyuta, Śaṅkara, Bhāskara, and the Goddess—these are remembered as the dharma of human beings.

 

Dominion over wealth, enjoyments, sacred study, worship of Śaṅkara, self-importance, and lack of martial boldness—these are said to constitute the dharma among the Guhyakas.

 

Commentary

Verses 23–24 contain the first clearly universal ethical program in this sequence. Unlike the dharmas of the celestial classes, human dharma combines ritual duties, personal discipline, social virtues, nonviolence, purity, and plural devotional allegiance.

 

The description of the Guhyakas is deliberately less idealized. Their dharma reflects their characteristic sphere—wealth, enjoyment, and Śaṅkara worship—while also including psychologically ambiguous traits such as self-importance and limited martial courage. The passage is describing the sustaining nature of each class, not necessarily praising every listed quality as a universal virtue.

 

Guhyaka are a class of semi-divine beings closely connected with Yakṣas and especially with Kubera, the god of wealth. Guhyaka means something like “hidden one,” “secret being,” or “being of hidden places.” They are not usually “demons” in the Daitya/Dānava sense. They are closer to Yakṣas — nature-and-wealth spirits who guard treasures and inhabit remote or sacred places.

 

Guhyakas are often associated with:

  • hidden treasures
  • mountains and caves
  • Kubera’s retinue
  • wealth, guardianship, and secret places
  • semi-divine attendants
26-28

परदारावमर्शित्वं पारक्येऽर्थे च लोलुपा ।
स्वाध्यायस्त्र्यम्बके भक्तिर्धर्मोऽयं राक्षसः स्मृतः ॥ २६ ॥
अविवेकमथाज्ञानं शौचहानिरसत्यता ।
पिशाचानामयं धर्मः सदा चामिषगृध्नुता ॥ २७ ॥
योनयो द्वादशैवैतास्तासु धर्माश्च राक्षस ।
ब्रह्मणा कथिताः पुण्या द्वादशैव गतिप्रदाः ॥ २८ ॥

paradārāvamarśitvaṃ pārakye ’rthe ca lolupā |
svādhyāyas tryambake bhaktir dharmo ’yaṃ rākṣasaḥ smṛtaḥ || 26 ||
avivekam athājñānaṃ śaucahānir asatyatā |
piśācānām ayaṃ dharmaḥ sadā cāmiṣagṛdhnutā || 27 ||
yonayo dvādaśaivaitās tāsu dharmāś ca rākṣasa |
brahmaṇā kathitāḥ puṇyā dvādaśaiva gatipradāḥ || 28 ||

Transgression against others’ wives, covetousness of others’ property, sacred study, and devotion to Tryambaka are remembered as the characteristic dharma of the Rākṣasas.

 

Lack of discernment, ignorance, the abandonment of purity, falsehood, and constant craving for flesh constitute the dharma of the Piśācas.

 

These, O Rākṣasa, are precisely the twelve classes of birth, and within them are twelve corresponding dharmas, proclaimed by Brahmā, sacred in their formulation and productive of their respective destinies.

 

Commentary

Piśāca are a class of frightening, ghost-like, or demonic beings. They are not the same as Daityas or Dānavas, who are great Asura clans with royal genealogies. Piśācas are lower, more ghoul-like beings — closer to evil spirits, corpse-demons, or night-roaming ghosts. Piśācas are listed among classes of beings with their own nature or dharma. Their traits are negative: lack of discrimination, impurity, falsehood, and craving for meat/flesh.

 

They are usually associated with:

  • darkness
  • cemeteries and cremation grounds
  • night-wandering
  • corpse-eating or flesh-eating
  • madness, possession, impurity, and terrifying behavior

 

The twelve classes enumerated in verses 15–27 are:

  • Devas
  • Daityas
  • Siddhas
  • Gandharvas
  • Vidyādharas
  • Kiṃpuruṣas
  • Pitṛs
  • Ṛṣis
  • Humans
  • Guhyakas
  • Rākṣasas
  • Piśācas

 

Verses 26–28 clarify that dharma in this catalog is used partly in the sense of an inherent disposition, a characteristic mode of conduct, or a class-specific nature. It cannot consistently mean “moral righteousness,” since violation, greed, falsehood, and impurity are included within the dharmas of Rākṣasas and Piśācas.

 

The concluding term gatipradāḥ supplies the key: these dispositions shape or produce corresponding destinies. The list is therefore not simply prescribing behavior; it is also presenting a moral and psychological taxonomy in which patterns of consciousness and conduct correspond to particular modes of embodied existence.

29-32

सुकेशिरुवाच
भवद्भिरुक्ता ये धर्माः शाश्वता द्वादशाव्ययाः ।
तत्र ये मानवा धर्मास्तान् भूयो वक्तुमर्हथ ॥ २९ ॥
ऋषय ऊचुः
शृणुष्व मनुजादीनां धर्मांस्तु क्षणदाचर ।
ये वसन्ति महीपृष्ठे नरा द्वीपेषु सप्तसु ॥ ३० ॥
योजनानां प्रमाणेन पञ्चाशत्कोटिरायता ।
जलोपरि महीयं हि नौरिवास्ते सरिज्जले ॥ ३१ ॥
तस्योपरि च देवेशो ब्रह्मा शैलेन्द्रमुत्तमम् ।
कर्णिकाकारमत्युच्चं स्थापयामास सत्तम ॥ ३२ ॥

sukeśir uvāca
bhavadbhir uktā ye dharmāḥ śāśvatā dvādaśāvyayāḥ |
tatra ye mānavā dharmās tān bhūyo vaktum arhatha || 29 ||
ṛṣaya ūcuḥ
śṛṇuṣva manujādīnāṃ dharmāṃs tu kṣaṇadācara |
ye vasanti mahīpṛṣṭhe narā dvīpeṣu saptasu || 30 ||
yojanānāṃ pramāṇena pañcāśat-koṭir āyatā |
jalopari mahīyaṃ hi naur ivāste sarij-jale || 31 ||
tasyopari ca deveśo brahmā śailendram uttamam |
karṇikākāram atyucchaṃ sthāpayām āsa sattama || 32 ||

Sukeśi said: The dharmas you have described are eternal, twelve in number, and imperishable. Among them, please explain once again, in greater detail, those dharmas that belong to human beings.

 

The sages said: Listen, O night-roamer, to the dharmas of human beings and the other related inhabitants—the people who dwell upon the surface of the earth throughout its seven dvīpas.

 

Measured in yojanas, this earth extends for fifty koṭis; resting upon the waters, it remains like a boat upon a river.

 

Upon it Brahmā, the lord of the gods, established the supreme king of mountains, exceedingly lofty and shaped like the central pericarp of a lotus, O excellent one.

 

Commentary
  • Yojana — a unit of distance.
  • Koṭi — a numerical unit meaning 10,000,000 (ten million).
  • Fifty koṭis of yojanas = 500 million yojanas
  • 1 yojana = 8-14.5km
  • 500 million yojanas ≈ 6.5 billion km (using 13km)

 

Before describing human dharma in detail, the sages first define the different regions in which human populations live. The implication is that human conditions and practices are not identical throughout the seven dvīpas; their geographical and cosmic setting must be established before their respective dharmas can be explained.

 

The image of the earth floating like a boat and Mount Meru rising from it, like the pericarp of a lotus, presents the cosmos as an ordered, sacred structure rather than a physical map in the modern scientific sense. Geography serves as a framework for classifying different forms of life, conduct, and spiritual destiny.

33-35

स चेमां निर्ममे पुण्यां प्रजां देवश्चतुर्दिशम् ।
स्थानानि द्वीपसंज्ञानि कृतवांश्च प्रजापतिः ॥ ३३ ॥
तत्र मध्ये च कृतवाञ्जम्बूद्वीपमिति श्रुतम् ।
तल्लक्षं योजनानां च प्रमाणेन निगद्यते ॥ ३४ ॥
ततो जलनिधिः क्षारो बाह्यतो द्विगुणः स्थितः ।
तस्यापि द्विगुणः प्लक्षो बाह्यतः संप्रतिष्ठितः ॥ ३५ ॥

sa cemāṃ nirmame puṇyāṃ prajāṃ devaś caturdiśam |
sthānāni dvīpasaṃjñāni kṛtavāṃś ca prajāpatiḥ || 33 ||
tatra madhye ca kṛtavāñ jambūdvīpam iti śrutam |
tal lakṣaṃ yojanānāṃ ca pramāṇena nigadyate || 34 ||
tato jalanidhiḥ kṣāro bāhyato dviguṇaḥ sthitaḥ |
tasyāpi dviguṇaḥ plakṣo bāhyataḥ saṃpratiṣṭhitaḥ || 35 ||

And that god created this blessed population throughout the four quarters; Prajāpati also established the regions known as the dvīpas.

 

There, in the center, he created what is traditionally known as Jambūdvīpa. Its extent is declared to measure one hundred thousand yojanas.

 

Outside it lies the salt ocean, twice its extent. Outside that, Plakṣadvīpa is established, itself twice as extensive.

 

Commentary

These verses introduce the characteristic Purāṇic model of alternating concentric land-regions and oceans. Each successive ring is described as twice the extent of the one immediately within it. This is a symbolic and sacred cosmography organized around a central axis, rather than a cartographic account of the earth in the modern sense.

36-38

ततस्त्विक्षुरसोदश्च बाह्यतो वलयाकृतिः ।
द्विगुणः शाल्मलिद्वीपो द्विगुणोऽस्य महोदधेः ॥ ३६ ॥
सुरोदो द्विगुणस्तस्य तस्माच्च द्विगुणः कुशः ।
घृतोदो द्विगुणश्चैव कुशद्वीपात् प्रकीर्तितः ॥ ३७ ॥
घृतोदाद् द्विगुणः प्रोक्तः क्रौञ्चद्वीपो निशाचर ।
ततोऽपि द्विगुणः प्रोक्तः समुद्रो दधिसंज्ञितः ॥ ३८ ॥

tatas tv ikṣurasodaś ca bāhyato valayākṛtiḥ |
dviguṇaḥ śālmalidvīpo dviguṇo ’sya mahodadheḥ || 36 ||
surodo dviguṇas tasya tasmāc ca dviguṇaḥ kuśaḥ |
ghṛtodo dviguṇaś caiva kuśadvīpāt prakīrtitaḥ || 37 ||
ghṛtodād dviguṇaḥ proktaḥ krauñcadvīpo niśācara |
tato ’pi dviguṇaḥ proktaḥ samudro dadhisaṃjñitaḥ || 38 ||

Next, outside Plakṣadvīpa, lies the ocean of sugarcane juice, ring-shaped and twice its extent. Śālmalidvīpa is twice the extent of that great ocean.

 

The ocean of surā is twice the extent of Śālmalidvīpa, and Kuśadvīpa is twice the extent of the ocean of surā. The ocean of clarified butter is likewise declared to be twice the extent of Kuśadvīpa.

 

O night-roamer, Krauñcadvīpa is said to be twice the extent of the ocean of clarified butter. Beyond it, the ocean known as the Ocean of Curd is declared to be twice as extensive.”

 

Commentary

These verses continue the concentric progression:

  • Plakṣadvīpa – ocean of sugarcane juice
  • Śālmalidvīpa – ocean of surā
  • Kuśadvīpa – ocean of clarified butter
  • Krauñcadvīpa – ocean of curd
  • Śākadvīpa – Ocean of Milk
  • Puṣkaradvīpa – Ocean of Sweet Water
39-41

समुद्राद् द्विगुणः शाकः शाकाद् दुग्धोदधिरुत्तमः ।
द्विगुणः संस्थितो यत्र शेषपर्यङ्कगो हरिः ।
एते च द्विगुणाः सर्वे परस्परमपि स्थिताः ॥ ३९ ॥
चत्वारिंशदिमाः कोट्यो लक्षाश्च नवतिः स्मृताः ।
योजनानां राक्षसेन्द्र पञ्च चातिसुविस्तृताः ।
जम्बूद्वीपात् समारभ्य यावत्क्षीराब्धिरन्ततः ॥ ४० ॥
तस्माच्च पुष्करद्वीपः स्वादूदस्तदनन्तरम् ।
कोटयश्चतस्रो लक्षाणां द्विपञ्चाशच्च राक्षस ॥ ४१ ॥

samudrād dviguṇaḥ śākaḥ śākād dugdhodadhir uttamaḥ |
dviguṇaḥ saṃsthito yatra śeṣaparyaṅkago hariḥ |
ete ca dviguṇāḥ sarve parasparam api sthitāḥ || 39 ||
catvāriṃśad imāḥ koṭyo lakṣāś ca navatiḥ smṛtāḥ |
yojanānāṃ rākṣasendra pañca cātisuvistṛtāḥ |
jambūdvīpāt samārabhya yāvat kṣīrābdhir antataḥ || 40 ||
tasmāc ca puṣkaradvīpaḥ svādūdas tadanantaram |
koṭayaś catasro lakṣāṇāṃ dvipañcāśac ca rākṣasa || 41 ||

Beyond the Ocean of Curd lies Śākadvīpa, twice its extent; beyond Śākadvīpa is the excellent Ocean of Milk, likewise twice its extent. There resides Hari, reclining upon the couch of Śeṣa. All these regions are successively twice the size of the one immediately preceding them.

 

O lord of the Rākṣasas, from Jambūdvīpa up to the Ocean of Milk, their combined extent is remembered to be forty crore, ninety-five lakṣas of yojanas.

 

Beyond that lies Puṣkaradvīpa, followed by the Ocean of Sweet Water. O Rākṣasa, Puṣkaradvīpa measures four crore and fifty lakṣas of yojanas.

 

Commentary

Verse 39 introduces a distinctly Vaiṣṇava element into an otherwise geometric cosmological description. The Ocean of Milk is not merely another concentric ring: it is singled out as the abode of Hari reclining upon Ananta Śeṣa. Thus, as the cosmos expands outward through ever-larger concentric realms, it reaches a sacred region that functions as the divine residence of Viṣṇu before the final terrestrial ring of Puṣkaradvīpa and the encircling Ocean of Sweet Water.

42-46

पुष्करद्वीपमानोऽयं तावानन्ते महोदधिः ।
लक्षमण्डकटाहेन समन्तादभिपूरितम् ॥ ४२ ॥
एवं द्वीपास्त्विमे सप्त पृथग्धर्माः पृथक्क्रियाः ।
गदिष्यामस्तव वयं शृणुष्व त्वं निशाचर ॥ ४३ ॥
प्लक्षादिषु नरा वीर ये वसन्ति सनातनाः ।
शाकान्तेषु न तेष्वस्ति युगावस्था कथञ्चन ॥ ४४ ॥
मोदन्ते देववत्तेषां धर्मो दिव्य उदाहृतः ।
कल्पान्ते प्रलयस्तेषां निगद्येत महाभुज ॥ ४५ ॥
ये जनाः पुष्करद्वीपे वसन्ति रौद्रदर्शने ।
पैशाचमाश्रिता धर्मं कर्मान्ते ते विनाशिनः ॥ ४६ ॥

puṣkaradvīpamāno ’yaṃ tāvān ante mahodadhiḥ |
lakṣam aṇḍakaṭāhena samantād abhipūritam || 42 ||
evaṃ dvīpās tv ime sapta pṛthagdharmāḥ pṛthakkriyāḥ |
gadiṣyāmas tava vayaṃ śṛṇuṣva tvaṃ niśācara || 43 ||
plakṣādiṣu narā vīra ye vasanti sanātanāḥ |
śākānteṣu na teṣv asti yugāvasthā kathañcana || 44 ||
modante devavat teṣāṃ dharmo divya udāhṛtaḥ |
kalpānte pralayas teṣāṃ nigadyeta mahābhuja || 45 ||
ye janāḥ puṣkaradvīpe vasanti raudradarśane |
paiśācam āśritā dharmaṃ karmānte te vināśinaḥ || 46 ||

This is the measure of Puṣkaradvīpa. At the outermost limit, the great ocean is of precisely the same extent. A further one hundred thousand yojanas is occupied on every side by the shell of the cosmic egg.

 

Thus, there are these seven dvīpas, each possessing distinct dharmas and distinct practices. We shall describe them to you; listen, O night-roamer.

 

O hero, the ancient and enduring people who dwell in the regions beginning with Plakṣadvīpa and ending with Śākadvīpa experience no division into cosmic ages whatsoever.

 

They rejoice like gods, and their dharma is declared to be divine. Their dissolution is said to occur only at the end of a kalpa, O mighty-armed one.

 

But those people who dwell in Puṣkaradvīpa, which is terrible to behold, have adopted a Piśāca-like dharma. When their karma comes to an end, they are subject to destruction.

47-49

सुकेशिरुवाच
किमर्थं पुष्करद्वीपो भवद्भिः समुदाहृतः ।
दुर्दर्शः शौचरहितो घोरः कर्मान्तनाशकृत् ॥ ४७ ॥
ऋषय ऊचुः
तस्मिन् निशाचर द्वीपे नरकाः सन्ति दारुणाः ।
रौरवाद्यास्ततो रौद्रः पुष्करो घोरदर्शनः ॥ ४८ ॥
सुकेशिरुवाच
कियन्त्येतानि रौद्राणि नरकाणि तपोधनाः ।
कियन्मात्राणि मार्गेण का च तेषु स्वरूपता ॥ ४९ ॥

sukeśir uvāca
kimarthaṃ puṣkaradvīpo bhavadbhiḥ samudāhṛtaḥ |
durdarśaḥ śaucarahito ghoraḥ karmāntanāśakṛt || 47 ||
ṛṣaya ūcuḥ
tasmin niśācara dvīpe narakāḥ santi dāruṇāḥ |
rauravādyās tato raudraḥ puṣkaro ghoradarśanaḥ || 48 ||
sukeśir uvāca
kiyanty etāni raudrāṇi narakāṇi tapodhanāḥ |
kiyanmātrāṇi mārgeṇa kā ca teṣu svarūpatā || 49 ||

Sukeśi said: For what reason have you described Puṣkaradvīpa as difficult to behold, devoid of purity, dreadful, and destructive when one’s karma comes to an end?

 

The sages said: In that dvīpa, O night-roamer, there are terrible hells beginning with Raurava. Therefore, Puṣkara is fierce and dreadful to behold.

 

Sukeśi said: How many are these terrible hells, O treasures of austerity? What are their dimensions in terms of distance, and what is the specific nature of each?

50-53

ऋषय ऊचुः
शृणुष्व राक्षसश्रेष्ठ प्रमाणं लक्षणं तथा ।
सर्वेषां रौरवादीनां संख्या या त्वेकविंशतिः ॥ ५० ॥
द्वे सहस्रे योजनानां ज्वलिताङ्गारविस्तृते ।
रौरवो नाम नरकः प्रथमः परिकीर्तितः ॥ ५१ ॥
तप्तताम्रमयी भूमिरधस्ताद्वह्नितापिता ।
द्वितीयो द्विगुणस्तस्मान् महारौरव उच्यते ॥ ५२ ॥
ततोऽपि द्विःस्थितश्चान्यस्तामिस्रो नरकः स्मृतः ।
अन्धतामिस्रको नाम चतुर्थो द्विगुणः परः ॥ ५३ ॥

ṛṣaya ūcuḥ
śṛṇuṣva rākṣasaśreṣṭha pramāṇaṃ lakṣaṇaṃ tathā |
sarveṣāṃ rauravādīnāṃ saṃkhyā yā tv ekaviṃśatiḥ || 50 ||
dve sahasre yojanānāṃ jvalitāṅgāra-vistṛte |
rauravo nāma narakaḥ prathamaḥ parikīrtitaḥ || 51 ||
taptatāmramayī bhūmir adhastād vahnitāpitā |
dvitīyo dviguṇas tasmān mahāraurava ucyate || 52 ||
tato ’pi dviḥsthitaś cānyas tāmisro narakaḥ smṛtaḥ |
andhatāmisrako nāma caturtho dviguṇaḥ paraḥ || 53 ||

The sages said: Listen, O foremost of the Rākṣasas, to the dimensions and defining characteristics of all the hells beginning with Raurava, whose number is twenty-one.

 

An extent of two thousand yojanas is covered with blazing embers. This is proclaimed to be the first hell, named Raurava.

 

Its ground is made of red-hot copper and is heated from beneath by fire. The second hell, twice the extent of that one, is called Mahāraurava.

 

Beyond that is another hell, Tāmisra, extending to twice the preceding measure. The fourth, lying farther beyond and twice as extensive, is named Andhatāmisraka.

 

Commentary
  • Raurava — associated with dreadful crying or howling. The place of terrible cries.
  • Andhatāmisraka — the hell of blinding darkness.

 

  • Raurava — 2,000 yojanas
  • Mahāraurava — 4,000 yojanas
  • Tāmisra — 8,000 yojanas
  • Andhatāmisraka — 16,000 yojanas
54-56

ततस्तु कालचक्रेति पञ्चमः परिगीयते ।
अप्रतिष्ठं च नरकं घटीयन्त्रं च सप्तमम् ॥ ५४ ॥
असिपत्रवनं चान्यत् सहस्राणि द्विसप्ततिः ।
योजनानां परिख्यातमष्टमं नरकोत्तमम् ॥ ५५ ॥
नवमं तप्तकुम्भं च दशमं कूटशाल्मलिः ।
करपत्रस्तथैवोक्तस्तथान्यः श्वानभोजनः ॥ ५६ ॥

tatas tu kālacakreti pañcamaḥ parigīyate |
apratiṣṭhaṃ ca narakaṃ ghaṭīyantraṃ ca saptamam || 54 ||
asipatravanaṃ cānyat sahasrāṇi dvisaptatiḥ |
yojanānāṃ parikhyātam aṣṭamaṃ narakottamam || 55 ||
navamaṃ taptakumbhaṃ ca daśamaṃ kūṭaśālmaliḥ |
karapatras tathaivoktas tathānyaḥ śvānabhojanaḥ || 56 ||

Next, the fifth is celebrated as Kālacakra. Apratiṣṭha is the sixth hell, and Ghaṭīyantra is the seventh.

 

Another is Asipatravana, renowned as extending for seventy-two thousand yojanas; it is the eighth, a foremost hell.

 

The ninth is Taptakumbha, and the tenth is Kūṭaśālmali. Karapatra is likewise declared next, and another is Śvānabhojana.

 

Commentary

The sequence in these verses is:

  • Kālacakra
  • Apratiṣṭha
  • Ghaṭīyantra
  • Asipatravana
  • Taptakumbha
  • Kūṭaśālmali
  • Karapatra
  • Śvānabhojana
57-58

संदंशो लोहपिण्डश्च करम्भसिकता तथा ।
घोरा क्षारनदी चान्या तथान्यः कृमिभोजनः ।
तथाष्टादशमी प्रोक्ता घोरा वैतरणी नदी ॥ ५७ ॥
तथापरः शोणितपूयभोजनः क्षुराग्रधारो निशितश्च चक्रकः ।
संशोषणो नाम तथाप्यनन्तः प्रोक्तास्तवैते नरकाः सुकेशिन् ॥ ५८ ॥

saṃdaṃśo lohapiṇḍaś ca karambhasikatā tathā |
ghorā kṣāranadī cānyā tathānyaḥ kṛmibhojanaḥ |
tathāṣṭādaśamī proktā ghorā vaitaraṇī nadī || 57 ||
tathāparaḥ śoṇitapūyabhojanaḥ kṣurāgradhāro niśitaś ca cakrakaḥ |
saṃśoṣaṇo nāma tathāpy anantaḥ proktās tavaite narakāḥ sukeśin || 58 ||

Next are Saṃdaṃśa, Lohapiṇḍa, and Karambhasikatā; another is the terrible river of caustic alkali, and another is Kṛmibhojana. The dreadful river Vaitaraṇī is declared to be the eighteenth.

 

Next is Śoṇitapūyabhojana; then the sharp Cakraka, furnished with a razor-like cutting edge; and likewise the hell named Saṃśoṣaṇa, which is without end. These hells have now been described to you, O Sukeśin.

 

Commentary
  • Saṃdaṃśa
  • Lohapiṇḍa
  • Karambhasikatā
  • Kṣāranadī
  • Kṛmibhojana
  • Vaitaraṇī
  • Śoṇitapūyabhojana
  • Cakraka, sharp and razor-edged
  • Saṃśoṣaṇa, described as endless

 

Saṃdaṃśa means a pair of pincers, tongs, or a gripping instrument. As a hell-name, it evidently evokes torment by crushing, gripping, or tearing implements.

11

इति श्रीवामनपुराणे
एकादशोऽध्यायः ॥ ११ ॥

iti śrī-vāmana-purāṇe
ekādaśo ’dhyāyaḥ || 11 ||

Thus ends the eleventh chapter of the venerable Vāmana Purāṇa.

Full synopsis

Universal Dharma and the Seven Continents

Chapter 11

Sukeśi’s Inquiry into the Nature of Dharma

The eleventh chapter of the Vāmana Purāṇa opens by explaining the origin of Sukeśi, the virtuous son of the Rākṣasa king Vidyutkeśin. Having received from Śiva a flying city together with invincibility, Sukeśi nevertheless remains devoted to righteousness. During a visit to the Māgadha forest, he approaches a gathering of sages and asks a fundamental theological question: what constitutes the highest good (śreyas) in both this world and the next? This inquiry establishes the chapter as a systematic discourse on dharma rather than a narrative of heroic conflict.

The Twelve Dharmas of Cosmic Society

The sages respond by presenting a remarkable classification of the universe into twelve principal orders of beings, each possessing its own characteristic dharma. The Devas are defined by sacrifice, Vedic learning, and devotion to Viṣṇu; the Daityas by martial prowess, political knowledge, and devotion to Hara; the Siddhas by yoga and realization of Brahman. Gandharvas, Vidyādharas, Kiṃpuruṣas, Pitṛs, Ṛṣis, humans, Guhyakas, Rākṣasas, and Piśācas are likewise assigned distinctive duties and dispositions. Rather than presenting a single universal ethical code, the chapter portrays dharma as a cosmic principle expressed differently according to the inherent nature and function of each class of being.

Human Dharma within the Cosmic Order

Among the twelve categories, the sages devote particular attention to human beings. Human dharma integrates Vedic study, sacrifice, generosity, compassion, nonviolence, self-restraint, purity, and mastery of the senses with devotion directed simultaneously toward Acyuta (Viṣṇu), Śaṅkara (Śiva), Bhāskara (the Sun), and the Goddess. This inclusive formulation presents humanity as uniquely positioned to cultivate both ethical virtue and broad theological devotion, distinguishing human life as a privileged arena for spiritual discipline.

The Sacred Geography of the Universe

Before explaining the conditions of human existence in greater detail, the chapter turns to cosmology. The Earth is described as floating upon the cosmic waters like a boat, with Mount Meru rising at its center like the pericarp of a lotus. Around Jambūdvīpa extend six progressively larger concentric continents separated by oceans of salt, sugarcane juice, surā, clarified butter, curd, milk, and sweet water. The Ocean of Milk receives special attention as the abode of Hari reclining upon Śeṣa. This cosmography is presented not as physical geography but as a sacred, hierarchical ordering of the inhabited universe.

Regional Dharma and the Seven Dvīpas

The concentric continents are distinguished not only by their geography but also by their modes of existence. The inhabitants of the outer dvīpas, from Plakṣa through Śāka, are described as living with divine qualities, free from the cyclical succession of the yugas, and subject to dissolution only at the end of a cosmic age. Puṣkaradvīpa forms a striking exception, being associated with a Piśāca-like mode of existence and serving as the threshold to the infernal realms. The chapter, therefore, extends the concept of dharma beyond individuals and species to entire cosmic regions.

The Twenty-One Hells

Responding to Sukeśi’s further questions, the sages enumerate twenty-one hells (narakas), beginning with Raurava and Mahāraurava and continuing through Tāmisra, Andhatāmisra, Asipatravana, Vaitaraṇī, Taptakumbha, Kūṭaśālmali, Śvānabhojana, Kṛmibhojana, and others. Their dimensions, physical characteristics, and names evoke distinct forms of punishment involving blazing embers, molten metal, razor-edged forests, caustic rivers, and consuming torment. The infernal regions complete the chapter’s moral geography by illustrating the consequences that correspond to particular patterns of conduct.

Dharma as the Architecture of the Cosmos

The chapter ultimately presents one of the Vāmana Purāṇa‘s most comprehensive theological syntheses. Ethics, cosmology, anthropology, and eschatology are woven into a single vision in which every class of being possesses its own sustaining dharma, every region of the universe has its proper place, and every mode of conduct leads toward a corresponding destiny. The result is a distinctly Purāṇic worldview in which the structure of the cosmos and the moral order are inseparable expressions of divine design.

Nearby in the Vāmana Purāṇa

Ch7 - Ch13
All 13 chapters →
Ch7 The Birth of Urvaśī and Prahlāda’s Battle with Nara-Nārāyaṇa Ch8 Prahlāda’s Battle with Nara-Nārāyaṇa: Victory Through Devotion Ch9 Andhaka’s War Against the Gods Ch10 Andhaka’s Victory Over the Gods
Ch11 Universal Dharma and the Seven Continents You are here
Ch12 Karmic Sins, Infernal Punishments, and Ingratitude Ch13 The Sacred Geography of Jambūdvīpa and Bhārata Varṣa